Chemobrionics: 从 - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

Chemobrionics: 从
Self-Assembled Material
Architectures to the
Origin of Life

抽象的
Self-organizing precipitation processes, such as chemical
gardens forming biomimetic micro- and nanotubular forms, 有
potential to show us new fundamental science to explore, quantify,
and understand nonequilibrium physicochemical systems, and shed
light on the conditions for lifeʼs emergence. The physics and
chemistry of these phenomena, due to the assembly of material
architectures under a flux of ions, and their exploitation in
applications, have recently been termed chemobrionics. Advances
in understanding in this area require a combination of expertise
in physics, 化学, mathematical modeling, 生物学, 和
nanoengineering, as well as in complex systems and nonlinear and
materials sciences, giving rise to this new synergistic discipline of
chemobrionics.

Silvana S. S. Cardoso
University of Cambridge

Department of Chemical
Engineering and Biotechnology
sssc1@cam.ac.uk

Julyan H. 乙. Cartwright
Universidad de Granada CSIC
Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias
de la Tierra
Instituto Carlos I de Física
Teórica y Computacional
julyan.cartwright@csic.es
Jitka Čejková
University of Chemistry and Technology

Prague
Department of Chemical Engineering

Leroy Cronin
University of Glasgow
School of Chemistry

Anne De Wit
Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)
Nonlinear Physical Chemistry Unit

Simone Giannerini
Università di Bologna

Dipartimento di Scienze Statistiche
“Paolo Fortunati”
Dezső Horváth
University of Szeged

Department of Applied and
Environmental Chemistry

Alírio Rodrigues
University of Porto

Department of Chemical Engineering

迈克尔·J. 拉塞尔
Università degli Studi di Torino

Dipartimento di Chimica

C. Ignacio Sainz-Díaz
Universidad de Granada CSIC

Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra

Ágota Tóth
University of Szeged

Department of Physical Chemistry
and Materials Science

关键词
Chemical garden, chemobrionics, origin of life,
biomimetics, submarine alkaline vent theory

人工生命 26: 315–326 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1162/artl_a_00323

根据知识共享署名发布
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1 介绍

Chemobrionics

Chemobrionics [3] is a newly emerging field of fundamental nonlinear and complex systems science
that intersects with physics, 化学, 生物学, and materials science, and involves the study of bio-
mimetic materials as complex systems based on self-organized structures involving semipermeable
membranes and amorphous as well as polycrystalline solids. “Chemobrionics”—from “chemo” and
Greek “bruein” (to grow or enlarge, in this case meaning to grow owing to osmotic pressure)—
encompasses the classical chemical gardens as shown in Figure 1, but the field goes far beyond this
centuries-old experiment. Several factors are working in unison to make a concerted research effort
in this field both relevant and timely. It is today commonly accepted that self-assembly is an excel-
lent way to form complex structures in an evolving series of small steps [4, 13, 19]. 的确, it is the
foundation for much of modern nanoscience. Yet nature applies not only self-assembly, 但是也
self-organization, which allows the stepwise building of complex patterns ultimately from simple
building blocks (例如, [23]). Harnessing such methods for scientific and technological applications
is thus extremely promising, but it is currently hampered by incomplete understanding of the under-
lying fundamental phenomena.

The same challenges are encountered by those seeking to comprehend how these physical and
chemical processes may have taken part in the emergence of life on this planet and elsewhere in the
宇宙, as these same chemobrionic systems are found at oceanic hydrothermal vents [5], 和
hypothesis that life may have incubated within them over 4 billion years ago in the transition from
geophysical and geochemical mechanisms to biology is today one of the most promising theories for
the emergence of life on Earth [8, 39].

Research related to these biomimetic nanotubular or microtubular systems is developing very
快速地, and much work is appearing from individual research groups, both in Europe and worldwide,
related to the self-organized chemical-garden phenomenon. 然而, the efforts of these research
groups have been scattered, researchers working independently without cohesion. This impedes the
making of a strong research effort in this area that will both advance fundamental science and enable
the future exploitation of advances in chemobrionics by other fields. Chemobrionics requires a
transdisciplinary approach rather than conventional, more narrowly defined research projects. 这
more limited approach has further hampered advances in the area in that research has been artifi-
cially divided along the traditional lines of physics, 化学, 生物学, 等等. This has been
detrimental because the distinction between these fields is blurred in the area of chemobrionics,
在哪里, as is generally the case with nonlinear and complex systems, more holistic approaches are
必需的.

数字 1. Plantlike structures: a classical chemical-garden experiment.

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Chemobrionics

A new European-wide chemobrionics network, founded by us and funded by COST (欧洲的
Cooperation in Science and Technology), addresses this need. This network, scheduled to run from
2018–2022, links nationally funded research projects and aims to be an essential facilitator for world-
class European chemobrionics research that will enable large-scale concerted European-scale research
努力. 此外, and very importantly, the network will greatly improve the training of early-stage
researchers through short-term scientific missions to groups working in different areas. This will not only
train early-stage researchers in transdisciplinary research but also allow them to gain experience in diverse
approaches to research group organization, 管理, and communication. 因此, the network will be
an essential component both in European research itself and in rearing the European researchers of the
未来. We are also organizing networking workshops as well as chemical-garden demonstrations,
exhibitions, and art–science installations that will involve researchers early in their careers, giving them
an opportunity not only to develop research synergies, but also to advocate for science.

2 The State of the Art

Over the past four centuries, the surprising precipitation structures known as chemical (or crystal,
silica, silicate) gardens have fascinated people, as well as being the basis of different philosophical
and scientific theories, an inspiration for literature, and motivation for many experiments. Classic
chemical gardens are hollow precipitation structures that form when a metal salt seed is deposited
in an aqueous solution that contains anions such as silicate, phosphate, carbonate, oxalate, or sulfide
(数字 2). The seed releases metal ions in the solution that precipitate with the anions in the external
解决方案, forming a gelatinous colloidal membrane that surrounds the seed [12]. There is an obvious
visual similarity between the precipitated structures in chemical gardens (数字 1) and a variety of bio-
逻辑形式, including those of plants, fungi, and insects. 此外, in a way, the process of chemical-
garden formation from an inorganic seed in a reactive solution resembles the growth of plants from a seed
in water or in soil.

These biomimetic structures and processes have led researchers to ask themselves: Do chemical
gardens and biological structures share similar formation processes? Can these inorganic structures
teach us about biological morphogenesis, or is the similarity just accidental? Are they related to the
origin of life? 和, if the precipitation is affected by chemical and environmental parameters, can the
process of building complex structures be organized as biology does, to produce self-organized
precipitates as useful materials? Could a synthetic biology system be developed, using genetic ma-
terial, to initiate, 控制, or manipulate a chemical garden?

There are many other reaction systems that can form similar chemical gardens, and many details of
their formation process are specific to the particular system, but the main universal aspect is the
formation of some kind of semipermeable precipitation membrane, across which pronounced con-
centration gradients can be formed and maintained, resulting in osmotic and buoyancy forces [12, 37,
42] (数字 3). 明显地, chemical gardens are not the only pattern-forming system in chemistry.

数字 2. SEM images of the outer (左边) and inner (正确的) surfaces of a copper phosphate tube show that the inner side
has high surface area, suggesting it could be a good catalyst, while the outer is smooth.

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Chemobrionics

数字 3. CoCl2 pellet reacting with 1.5 M Na2SiO3 in a 2D experiment in a vertical Hele-Shaw cell shows fluid-flow
effects of buoyancy and osmosis.

Liesegang rings, 例如, are another pattern-forming system studied for a long time that involves
chemical precipitation. 然而, Liesegang rings do not involve semipermeable membranes and,
thus are a very different phenomenon. Chemical gardens and related structures (数字 4) are found in
laboratory chemistry, ranging from silicates [20, 22, 44] to polyoxometalates [16, 35], in applications rang-
ing from corrosion products [6] to hydration of Portland cement [10], and in natural environments
ranging from hydrothermal vents in the depths of the ocean to brinicles under sea ice [11, 15, 32, 45].
The structures formed in chemical-garden experiments can be very complex. Experimental and
theoretical studies of chemical-garden systems have accelerated since the end of the 20th century
with developments in nonlinear dynamics, the study of complex systems, the understanding of the
formation of patterns in chemical and physical systems [25], and the development of more advanced
experimental and analytical techniques [40]. Many aspects of chemical-garden systems, such as their
electrochemical [21] and magnetic properties [41, 43], have been recently characterized. It has been
observed that in some systems self-assembling chemical engines may appear spontaneously [18]. A
greater understanding of the process of forming chemical gardens in recent decades has also enabled
researchers to begin to control it [36], deliberately fabricating structures using advanced precipitation
techniques that have many potential uses in the science and technology of materials, especially at the
nano scale. 一方面, chemical gardens show us that complex structures do not have to be
of biotic origin and emphasize the dangers of using morphology as a sign of biological origin, and on
另一方面, they suggest a possible way to achieve a protocol from an abiotic beginning. We now
know that the discovery of a biomimetic form is not a direct indication of the existence of life,
because it can be produced by organic matter, such as living organisms, or by abiotic phenomena,
such as chemical gardens. 然而, modern research shows that chemical gardens in hydrothermal
vents on the sea floor are a plausible path for the origin of life on earth [27].

The scientific and technological importance of chemical-garden systems goes far beyond the first
experiments that saw their visual similarity to plant growth. Chemical-garden-type systems now en-
compass a multitude of self-organized processes involving the formation of a semipermeable mem-
brane that creates persistent macroscopic structures from the interaction of precipitation reactions
and solidification processes with diffusion and fluid motion [26].

The challenge remains to elucidate the growth processes to understand and apply science for the
benefit of various applications. Chemobrionic processes are diverse and apply to many disciplines;
specific systems and properties are studied in, 除其他外, geology, planetary science, astrobiology,

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Chemobrionics

数字 4. Tubular structures are found at all scales in laboratory and natural chemical gardens [9], ranging from micrometers
to tens of meters in size. (A) Black smoker chimney and (乙) Lost City alkaline hydrothermal vent. These tubular structures are
several meters tall. (C) Laboratory chemical garden. (d, e) Electron microscope views of a single chemical garden tube.

生物学, material science, and catalysis. Researchers in these disciplines usually do not communicate
with each other, and there is no general knowledge that these phenomena are very interrelated.

3 Self-Assembled Material Architectures and their Possible Technological

应用领域

The current commitment to chemobrionics is at the level of fundamental scientific research. 这
research that is being carried out in this very active field today lies close to the heart of complex
systems and nonlinear science. There are large, active scientific communities in physics and chem-
istry that that will be alive to further developments in this field. 而且, the question of how life
began in the universe is perhaps the greatest challenge of complex systems and their self-assembly
and self-organization. The linking together of research with the field of chemobrionics certainly
spurs efforts towards putting together the pieces of this question, an answer to which would surely
reverberate beyond science [7, 38, 48].

From a technological perspective, chemobrionics can be used to learn about physico-chemical
systems that in some ways mimic biological systems and, if these systems are mastered, may lead
to the development of new self-assembling technologies that could operate from nanometer to
meter scales (数字 5). The richness and complexity of these chemical motors and chemical batte-
里斯, to name two already foreseen developments, and the fact that they emerge from simple, 大多
two-component chemical systems, indicate that their formation is an intrinsic physical property of
the specific chemical systems. By simply changing concentrations or reactants and other experimental

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Chemobrionics

数字 5. Decanol droplets placed in an aqueous solution of alkaline sodium decanoate form filamentary structures. 这
formation and growth of these structures morphologically resemble the formation and growth of tubular structures in
traditional chemical gardens. Initial conditions: glass slide with a diameter 10 毫米, 77.2 Al of 10 mM decanoate solution,
0.6 Al of decanol, 0.5 Al of 6.5 M NaCl. Image taken at time 1 hour after beginning of experiment. The scale bar cor-
responds to 100 是 [14].

parameters we may arrive at a collection or library of these chemical “engines” [3]. And by expanding
on the self-assembling nature of these out-of-equilibrium chemical systems, we may eventually be
able to form larger functioning structures. One of the main challenges is to control the morphology,
尺寸, and thickness of these structures. Related to this, another important challenge and a great tech-
nological development opportunity is the application of micro- or nano-probes to analyze the chem-
ical compositions of internal and external fluids, micro electrical potentials, fluid dynamics, 和
thickness of layers.

In overcoming these hurdles, a great research opportunity can be opened to produce homoge-
neous and tailored micro- and nanotubes for industrial applications. 然而, for these last oppor-
tunities to become possible, it will be necessary to overcome another challenge, 即, to optimize
these structures in order to improve their plasticity and mechanical strength. We highlight some of
the possible technological applications of chemobrionics:

(西德:129) Organic and bio-materials: It is a challenge to extend chemical gardens to organic and

mixed inorganic–organic chemobrionic systems [33]. This can open a great opportunity to
create nanostructures for bio-materials that have high biocompatibility with living cells and
组织. Chemical gardens may also be worth considering with regard to selective
adsorption–desorption processes of interest, 例如, for the slow release of drugs [1].
(西德:129) 药品: Hughes et al. [24] have employed chemobrionic structures as self-assemblages of
calcium phosphate tubes to form cellular scaffolds for hard-tissue engineering. That bone-
marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells bind to these tubular structures is particularly
promising for bone regeneration operations.

(西德:129) Electrochemistry: The electrochemical properties of self-assembling chemobrionic

membranes are poorly understood, and further studies of these phenomena in laboratory
experiments will help us understand the larger-scale energy generation that occurs in
natural chemical-garden systems. During their formation, chemical gardens produce an
electric potential across their interfacial membrane [2], which has a clear technological
application to fuel cell technology [31].

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Chemobrionics

(西德:129) Catalysis and adsorption: Chemical gardens are formed by controlled crystal growth at an
interface, not unlike electroplating material onto a surface or growing thin solid films.
Taking into account that chemical-garden micro- or nanotubes can have reactive internal
surfaces with chemical and adsorption properties, these structures will be useful in
applications such as nanocatalysts and nanosupports for catalysts.

(西德:129) Gas adsorption: The porosity and the large surface area of these tubes could be

advantageous for selective adsorption–desorption of gaseous pollutants and gas exchange
流程. For these potential applications, other challenges need to be overcome, 例如
the necessary mechanical properties, plasticity, and morphology control.

(西德:129) Microfluidics and controlled branching and tubular networks: If we can control branching

in chemical-garden tubes, we can construct tubular microfluidic networks for fluid
加工, mixing, 等等. Important advances have already been achieved in this
respect in recent years [46], but more remains to be done.

(西德:129) Sensors and filtration: Semipermeable membrane materials are of compelling interest for
many applications, and chemical gardens have already been shown to possess semipermeable
特性. Choice of starting components, or incorporation of functional molecules, in these
soft materials could open new avenues in hybrid membrane research for small-molecule
sensing or water recycling.

(西德:129) Chemical motors: Chemical motors may be defined as structures that move using chemical
reactions to produce the required energy. In chemical gardens the motors first self-
construct spontaneously, and then they may move in many different modes. Examples of
the motion include linear translation, rotation [28], periodic rupturing [17, 34], periodic
buoyancy oscillations, periodic waving or stretching of the entire structure, and periodic
ejection of complex tubes [29].

(西德:129) Back to cement: The application of chemical-garden ideas to understanding the hydration
of Portland cement has lain mostly dormant since a burst of activity from the 1970s to the
1990s. With the fresh insights and new analytical techniques available today, determined
researchers could make a large contribution to this subfield with obviously high industrial
impact.

(西德:129) Complex materials: A possible outcome of experiments where one reactant solution is

injected into the other one at given concentrations is to be able to control the composition
and structures of the precipitates and crystals formed. 例如, layered or complex
materials could be synthesized upon successive injection of solutions of different
作品. This provides a route to the design and growth of complex materials.

Thus a significant number of potential applications and fields can benefit from chemobrionics research,
and the perspective and insight gained from a better understanding of chemobrionics can provide
new perspectives and also new bridges between currently disconnected areas of scientific and tech-
nological interest.

4 The Origin of Life

The submarine alkaline vent theory (SAVT) for the emergence of life on Earth, 现在 30 years old, 有
reached the stage where it provides a clear path forward in emergence-of-life research involving
transdisciplinary approaches to the problem [13, 47].

That theory now leads research on the emergence of life, as evidenced by references to it made in
many recent books and by the rapid growth in citations. It is predicated on the unique proposal that
化学 (IE。, proton and electron) disequilibrium on the early Earth (acting as a battery) was at a

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Chemobrionics

数字 6. Chemical gardens and the origin of life. Simulacrum of the Hadean Ocean containing 10 mM ferrous iron. (A)
When injection rate is rapid, a chimney grows to ≈35 mm in 8 min before the top spalls off and settles (white arrow).
(乙) Geodic growth is favored when injection rate is slow [30].

potential approaching 1 volt. Built on empirical evidence—for example, the rapid reduction of
nitrate (the likely first high-potential electron acceptor ) to ammonia and the amination of pyruvate
to the amino acid alanine—the SAVT predicts that the 50 or so hydrous interlayers of green rust,
clamped between layered pliable redox-active iron oxyhydroxide boundaries dosed with Ni, 钴, 和
Mo and supported by iron sulfides, provide the potential to: (我) reduce CO2 to formate, (二) differ-
entiate and specialize functions such as proton-pumping and thereby generate, through a conversion
引擎, a far out-of-equilibrium PPi:Pi ratio of 1010, early lifeʼs main power source, (三、) enable elec-
tron bifurcation, bequeathing life a molybdenum-mediated step-up transformer to drive strongly
endergonic reactions and thus provide the organic framework molecules required for metabolism,
(四号) oxidize hydrogen and methane with nitric oxide to methyl groups to react with formate, 和
从而 (v) produce the acetic acid, the target molecule of all metabolism, and pyruvate, (六) poly-
merize these to heterochiral peptides to protect the evolving system at its various scales—all in all,
resulting in the germination and first flowering of the organic evolutionary tree as it emerges from
the hydroponically fertilized green rust seed. A further research direction, still at its very early stages,
is to investigate how green rust could begin to act as a digital information system to control partic-
ular amino acid (and peptide) output from aminations of carboxylic acids. The above geochemical
and biochemical steps must interface with biophysical and geophysical steps that involve the self-
assembly of semipermeable mineral membranes across which chemiosmosis operates. Submarine
alkaline hydrothermal vents are thus natural chemical gardens (数字 6).

We hope that ongoing research will outline, and/or provide, stringent experimental evidence to
indicate the success, partial success, or failure of the SAVT—in its present form involving pliable,
redox-active, yet resilient iron hydroxide boundaries of green rust, considered to have provided the
organizational seed to all life—thereby disinterring the roots of the evolutionary tree that have lain
hidden for the last 160 年.

5 A Network to Coordinate Research

An initial workshop on chemical gardens and chemobrionics was organized at the Lorentz Center,
Leiden, 在 2012, and proved a great success. The new COST network on chemobrionics is a natural
successor to that workshop.

The aim of this COST Action is to link research groups throughout Europe and beyond to stim-
ulate new, 创新的, and high-impact interdisciplinary scientific research on chemobrionics. 这
objective is to build bridges between the various communities to allow understanding and controlling

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physical, 化学, and biological properties of self-organized complex precipitation processes. 这
integrated fundamental knowledge will be shared with research groups focusing on specific applica-
系统蒸发散, as well as with groups involved in the popularization of science and those at the interface
between science and the arts.

The objective of this network is to coordinate the expertise of research groups throughout
Europe and beyond to stimulate new, 创新的, collaborative, and high-impact transdisciplinary
scientific research on understanding the nonlinear dynamics of these far-from-equilibrium complex
系统, the formation of biomimetic microtubular and nanotubular forms, and the interactions with
other systems, including nanomaterial applications, new routes to the development of synthetic and
artificial biologies, and thermodynamical implications related to the origin of life on Earth. 我们有
discussed the wide range of systems that can be considered chemical gardens or to which the
概念, ideas, and methods developed for chemical gardens can be applied.

The identified objectives will help in generating new bridges with related systems to enhance
the potential of this field. This Action will also stimulate the coordination of laboratory facilities,
including the co-use of equipment and processing software. The combination of these coordination
Actions in expertise, laboratory facilities, and applications will stimulate faster growth of the field of
chemobrionics and its impact on society.

Particular research coordination objectives are:

1. To understand the relationship between the experimental conditions and morphology of

these structures formed out of equilibrium.

2. To combine different instrumental and analytical techniques to characterize these
structures in terms of the chemical compositions and the gradients of chemical
compositions and crystallinity.

3. To understand the fluid dynamics during the formation of chemical gardens and

biomimetic nanomaterials.

4. To understand the interactions between metallic oxide–hydroxide layers in the formation

of tubular forms at the atomic scale.

5. To understand the thermodynamics in the interactions of the internal surfaces of these

materials with water and organic molecules.

6. To construct a protocol for flow-controlled synthesis of a solid material.

7. To explore the role of chemobrionics for the emergence of life at hydrothermal vents.
8. To promote dissemination and science–art crossover activities related to chemical gardens.

Our wish is that the coordination of research through this network should lead to the development
of new areas of fundamental scientific inquiry through sharing the knowledge and enhancing the
research abilities of the participants. In particular the network is coordinating research that will have
significant impacts on important contemporary issues. On the side of fundamental science and artifi-
cial life research, new knowledge about the origin of life here on Earth and in the universe fulfills one of
the most basic human desires: to understand where we came from, and whether we are alone in the
宇宙. On the technological side, there is the impact of the formation of new functional materials.
While in the short term this is fundamental science, the knowledge derived and disseminated under this
Action will have strong socioeconomic impacts in the long term. It is clear that an enhanced ability for
the development of new materials, with applications in diverse areas such as energy technologies or
information and communications technology, will be very helpful in the long term.

致谢
This work was supported by COST Action CA17120.

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