Animation, Fabrication,
摄影
Reflections upon the Intersecting Practices of
Sub-Saharan Artists within the Moving Image
Paula Callus
all photos © and courtesy of the artists
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
Animation draws upon a range of artistic prac-
泰斯: illustration, 绘画, sculpture, choreog-
拉菲, and photography. This assemblage of
forms is bound by the photographic as it effec-
tively captures the sequence of images. 那里
are a number of different ways in which a
range of African animation artists engage with or utilize photog-
raphy within their practice, illustrating the range and scope of
methods that are employed. By focusing upon Kenyan Ng’endo
Mukii’s explorations of animated documentary such as Yellow
Fever (2012), Ethiopian Ezra Wube’s portfolio of animated paint-
英格斯, and South African artists Mocke Jansen van Veuren and
Theresa Collins’s time-lapse experiments, this article explores
photographic practice within African animation. These artists
have been selected to demonstrate the range of such ideas and
practices explored within animation rather than to offer specific
representations of African animation. Embedded within these
animations one can identify the themes of migration, displace-
蒙特, 身份, interpersonal relationships, local narrative, 和
social and political commentary. They challenge the fixed con-
ventions of still and moving image and create works that prompt
the viewer to reconsider photography in light of fabrication and
manipulation. This interplay between photographic “realism”
and fabricated renditions of the image within animation gen-
erate an aesthetic diversity that cannot be easily placed within
rigid categories of the moving image.
Animation as a medium incorporates a range of aesthetic
devices including, in these cases, intervals of photographic pix-
elated1 performances, montage sequences of archival images
embedded as a projection, animated paintings as cathartic per-
formance, collage, time-lapse, and moving puppets. Unlike typi-
cal discourses on the photographic image to capture a moment
fixed in time, in this instance the camera makes visible the pas-
sage of time and process integral to all animation by the jux-
taposition of photographic images in succession. There is a
paradoxical condition that animation reveals through the per-
sistence of vision: the reliance upon renditions of still images
in order to make visible movement (Hernandez 2007). 这是
somewhere within the interstices of these images that the art-
ist’s fabrication of animation becomes complexly intertwined
with photography. Unlike live-action film, where it is possible
to conceal this “dormant” contradiction through the automated
recording of these images, in animation process artists are con-
tinuously faced with the interplay between stillness and the
appearance of moving image as they capture and compose the
sequential assembly of images.
Disconnections anD intersections in Discourse
Historically the relationship between animation and photog-
raphy has involved many levels of intersection, whether at the
moment of fabrication, manipulation, or rendition. These have
had varying degrees of visibility, which may account for their con-
ceptual separation and why they are often placed within differ-
ent discourses. 此外, the hegemonic effect of Disney in a
transnational context has had the unfortunate result of animation
typically being associated with children’s popular entertainment
and the consequential association with European fairy tales and
the fantastical. Discourse on animation from the African conti-
nent is scarce, with only a few key scholars directing their attention
to sub-Saharan animation artists at large (Bazzoli 2003; Bendazzi
2004; Callus 2010a, 2010乙, 2012; Convents 2003, 2014; Edera 1993,
1996).2 Within Western animation discourse, it is possible to iden-
tify both a narrative that positioned a range of animation genres
as particularly suited to the depiction of the unreal and a distinct
58 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
callus2.indd 58
28/05/2015 11:40 是
1 A photograph of the Congolese animator
Jean Michel Kibushi taken in 1988 in Kinshasa,
using a Bolex camera for under-the-camera
animation.
2 A still image from Kenneth Coker’s Iwa
(2009) depicting the artisan removing his mask.
interest in the fabricated qualities that made up the animated
moving image (韦尔斯 1997, 1998; 莫里茨 1988; Furniss 1998). 它是
aesthetic form tends to overtly declare the image as a construct in
contrast to the indexical qualities of the photograph.3 In contrast,
past discourses on photography and documentary film have posi-
tioned the technology and its aesthetic as evidence of the trace and
of its fidelity to the real, whereby the artist’s hand was rendered
invisible (巴特 1982, Bazin 1960). The indexical “nature” of the
image was discussed as evidence of the pre-photographic referent,
binding it to a fixed time, 空间, and subject in an a priori “reality”
(巴特 1982). 然而, animation does not preclude a relation-
ship to the notional referent that may be present in a variety of
guises and is typically explored within “animation documentary.”
例如, in 2D animation a purposeful aesthetic resemblance
and conceptual connection between the referent in a photograph
and the drawn image is possible though rotoscoping,4 如在
case of South African Jacquie Trowell’s Beyond Freedom (2005).
此外, even within photographic images the bond to a pre-
existing referent is also much more complex.5 As Tagg identifies,
every photograph is the result of specific and, in every sense, signifi-
cant distortions which render its relations to any prior reality deeply
problematic and raise the question of the determining level of the
material apparatus and of the social practices within which photogra-
phy takes place (Tagg 1988:2).
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
F
/
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 59
28/05/2015 11:40 是
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 59
3 A still image from the opening sequence
to Ng’endo Mukii’s Yellow Fever (2012) 作为
artist gives an account of her memory of the
mkorogo woman braiding her hair.
在 2014, 例如, the Lagos Photo Photography Festival
in Nigeria alluded to the strategies of contemporary artists who
sought to expand beyond with the dichotomy of fiction and doc-
umentary by theming the event under the title, “Staging Reality,
Documenting Fiction.”
concealing anD revealing the PhotograPhic
within animation
Perhaps the most overt use of the camera and photographic
process within a genre of animation would be in 3D stop-motion,
visible in the animations of Congolese Jean Michel Kibushi’s
Prince Loseno (2004), Malian Kadiatou Konate’s L’enfant Terri-
布莱 (1993), and Nigerois Moustapha Alassane’s Samba le Grande
(1977) and Kokoa (1985). Typically within this genre the animator
uses puppets and miniature sets to stage the performance that is
controlled through incremental movement and captured pho-
tographically frame by frame (如图. 1). Alassane’s Kokoa (1985),
例如, uses a colorful cast of puppets as anthropomorphic
frogs, chameleons, and leopard characters in a Kokowa “tradi-
tional” wrestling match. There are cases where artists can adopt
a similar process but may choose to incorporate found objects,
real actors, and sets in combination with puppets, as in the South
African piece And There in the Dust (2001) by Lara Foot New-
ton and Gerhard Marx. The controlled and incremental change
of three-dimensional objects in front of the lens is mirrored in
“under-the-camera” animation that uses an assortment of mate-
rials usually layered on two-dimensional planes. 是否
artist uses sand on glass, paint on a canvas, or prepared cut-out
pictorial elements such as photographs or drawings, the manip-
ulation is recorded and renders visible both movement and, 在
occasion, artistic process. By utilizing this technique, the artist is
also able to encompass painterly, drawn, and photographic ele-
ments within contemporaneous compositional spaces, 如在
case of Ethiopian Ezra Wube’s Indamora (2009) and Kibushi’s Le
Crapuad chez ses Beaux Parents (1992). At times the photograph
is embedded within the animation image (as a visible insert or
as a projection upon other elements in frame) to serve a spe-
cific function. In Wube’s Hold the Door (2008) and When We All
Met (2009) the artist combines pictorial elements as “objects of
memory” to call upon the discourses of representation in docu-
mentary photography as a record of personal and/or collective
记忆 (巴特 1982, Nora 1989).
It is also possible to talk of animation that appears entirely pho-
tographic in rendition, albeit spatially and temporally affected.
In Somehow (2009), by the Kenyan multimedia art collective
known as Just a Band and the journalist photographer Boniface
Mwangi, the artists call for reflection upon the Kenyan post-
election violence in 2008 by overtly drawing upon photographic
tropes.6 This limited animation presents movement on screen
as a state of change between two still photographic images: 这
photojournalistic capture of people during the post-election vio-
lence and the same picture with a rupture consisting of cut-out
“Hollywood smiles” that are seamlessly positioned to replace the
mouths of the subjects depicted in these images. The use of com-
bined photographic references is also visible in South African
artists Theresa Collins and Mocke J. van Veuren’s collaborative
time-lapse piece minutes 2010: time/bodies/rhythm/Johannesburg
(2010). This short sequence of affected digital moving images
is discussed here alongside animation, as the film engages with
discourses of animation to illustrate the control and interjec-
tion of the artists as they manipulate the sequence of still images
through a juxtaposition of spaces achieved through digital com-
positing.7 Although this type of semi-observational mode of still
and moving image can readily be positioned as “essentially an
act of non-intervention” (Sontag 1973:8), van Veuren’s interest
in empirical measurement is also tempered by an interest in the
poetic (van Veuren 2012). Collins and van Veuren’s film strad-
dles the automated process of time-lapse with the fabrication of
“dream like juxtapositions … used to create merged imaginary
landscapes” (van Veuren 2012:57).
Nigerian Kenneth Coker’s computer animations Iwa (2009;
如图. 2)) and Oni Ise Owo (2008) illustrate the interstices between
photography and animation in the digital context. These anima-
tions present adaptations of Yoruba mythology that combine
influences from “Dahomey art, North African architecture, Lotte
Reiniger’s films … [和] Yoruba textile patterns.”8 Both anima-
60 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
.
F
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 60
28/05/2015 11:40 是
tions are inspired by a Yoruba creation myth “recounted by Wole
Soyinka about a creator god Olorun and his rebellious servant,”
albeit rendered differently as 2D and 3D computer animation.9
Coker’s animations embedded a range of elements stemming
from his experiences in Nigeria; these included Yoruba mytholo-
gies and narrative, with their deities and spirits such as Sango;
culturally situated practices such as masquerade; Hausa pipe
players; imagery like the patterns on Yoruba adire eleko tex-
tiles; and the forms of masks and specific motifs, 例如
ram horns on the head of the exiled artisan. Computer anima-
tion offers the potential to create images that also move between
extreme aesthetic poles. These may appear photographic in their
entirety while being fabricated, or overtly synthetic yet rely-
ing upon the virtual camera to render visible the image. Simi-
larly, Coker’s own animations have an aesthetic that appear on
the one hand as a two-tone illustrative design, and on the other
hand as 3D, sculptural, virtual polygon-forms. Digital technolo-
gies therefore cause a reframing of discourses in animation and
photography. A mutable aesthetic is possible whereby the digital
image can appear to be textual, photographic, painterly, drawn,
or illustrative, while in essence being only a simulation of all
or any of these (Baudrillard 2009, 1983; Wyatt 1999; Manovich
2001). These technologies enable a collapse of the artist’s range of
tools within the computer (if not at the point of exposure, 在
point of manipulation and rendition). 然而, the artist’s reli-
ance upon the use of both a digital camera and a virtual camera
is less obvious in the renditions of 3D computer animation. 作为
in the case of Coker’s Iwa, a digital camera is typically used to
collect, archive, and transfer a range of photographic resources
that support the rendition of the animation.10 The digital cam-
era becomes, 有效, the vehicle that moves these parts on to
a digital platform where the artist can manipulate and embed
them within the animation. The virtual camera, on the other
手, is located within 3D animation software and enables the
final rendition of the image.11 Coker was able to manipulate this
camera, its virtual lenses, 位置, and movement to render a
more immersive cinematic execution of the scenes in Iwa.
尽管如此, whether these sub-Saharan artists work pre-
dominantly using a computer and related digital technologies or
a combination of techniques, they all share a similar straddling
of different types of image-making practices that engage with the
photographic. This combination of techniques, in the form of
digital cutout, stop-motion, 2D animated illustration, and pho-
tographic pixelated performance captured through in-camera
animation is especially visible in the work of Kenyan Ng’endo
Mukii’s Hasidi (2006) and Yellow Fever (2012).
interweaving aesthetic
Kenyan artist Ng’endo Mukii was born in Nairobi in 1982.
She began her studies in the arts at Kent Institute of Art and
设计, Maidstone,12 undertaking a foundation in Art and
设计. 在 2006 she graduated with a BFA degree in film, 年-
运动, and video from Rhode Island School of Design (RISD)
in the US, 并在 2010 Mukii undertook a Masters of Arts in
animation at the Royal College of Arts (RCA) in London, UK.13
It was during her early studies at RISD that Mukii recognized
the benefit of the aesthetic mutability that animation presented
and worked with a range of animation techniques ranging from
2D drawn animation to puppet animation. By pursuing anima-
tion she was able to draw upon her background in painting and
illustration and combine this with her interest in photography
and film.14 This was visible in her 4-minute graduation piece,
Hasidi (2006), shot on 16mm film using a Bolex camera with
a combination of live-action dancers, pixelation stop-motion,
and hand-drawn animation. The convergence of disparate aes-
thetic forms made possible within animation recurs through-
out Mukii’s subsequent animated moving images that also draw
upon the painterly, the synthetic forms of computer generated
imagery, and the photographic.
During this period as a student, she was able to explore an
autobiographical approach and investigate the subjective voice
within animation. Mukii was encouraged to explore methods
that would lend themselves to animated documentary formats.
This engagement with indexical and metonymic materials—in
the form of primary material such as photographic imagery, 每-
sonal documents, and archival content (文本, 图像, or sound)—
was embedded also in a project at the RCA in collaboration with
the London Imperial War Museum that allowed students to use
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
F
/
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
4 A still image from the opening sequence
to Ng’endo Mukii’s Yellow Fever (2012) 作为
artist gives an account of her memory of hav-
ing her hair braided with her sister in Kenya.
callus2.indd 61
28/05/2015 11:40 是
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 61
5 A still image from Ng’endo Mukii’s Yellow
Fever (2012) showing the projection of photo-
graphs of a Kenyan landscape upon the female
performer.
6 A still image from Ng’endo Mukii’s Yellow
Fever (2012) taken from the pixelated anima-
tion sequence of the performer with a pro-
jected image of a map part of a rapid montage
of archival images.
and interpret archival sound clips of testimonies from World
War II for their own animations.15 In 2011 Mukii was awarded the
RCA International Student Bursary, followed by the Blink Prize,
in the form of a grant to support the production of her thesis
film Yellow Fever (2012). This film follows on from previous
explorations of memory and experience visible in Untitled Dust
(2011), her short experimental animation also undertaken at the
RCA. Yellow Fever was a development on her interest in mem-
ory that had found a more focused rendition in autobiographical
“documentary animation.” This animation draws upon personal
experience to meditate upon skin color and skin bleaching. 这
film subsequently won a variety of awards at different festivals in
categories of documentary, animation, and short film format.16
the ProjecteD gaze
Yellow Fever presents a temporal and visual collage of many dif-
ferent components. Aesthetically it moves between the drawn and
illustrative image to the photographic, from the still to the mov-
英, from the real to the surreal. Its structure consists of separate
sections informed by each other; part poetic, part stream of con-
sciousness, part accounts of memories, part interviews. Mukii
interweaves these components and, through the use of the testi-
monial voice inciting solidarity, validates her film as “documen-
tary.” Mukii’s exploration of the theme of skin color and skin
bleaching is at all times framed by a personal experience and a
subjective voice. The animation begins with Mukii describing her
memory of being a child watching the woman who braided her
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
.
F
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
62 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
callus2.indd 62
28/05/2015 11:40 是
hair, who she refers to as mkorogo,17 a woman who bleached her
hands and her face in order to lighten her skin color (Figs. 3–4).
Mukii’s voice (as narrator) speaks of her memory in the present
tense, transporting the viewer to this particular moment in time.
In so doing she is able to create a sense of immediacy with this
opening sequence, as if she is reliving the moment that she is tes-
tifying to. She depicts herself sitting in the hair salon with her sis-
特尔; surrounding them on the walls are posters of blonde, tanned
women with text that reads “Fair and Beautiful” and “Soft and
Straight for beautiful hair.” Her account immediately draws atten-
tion to her concern with skin color and appearances as she states,
“She is chocolate … I am toffee.” Furthermore, Mukii uses framing
devices such as the mirror and posters (and later the television) 到
draw attention to the “pervasive and subconscious media created
ideals” that torment women (Mukii 2013).
The concerns that Mukii alludes to in her animation are likely
to resonate with other black women in Africa and the Diaspora
who may have shared similar experiences and who struggle with
notions of beauty and self-image. The film also engages with wider
political concerns regarding race and the history of the depiction
of the “Other.” These preoccupations are contextualized and his-
toricized through a series of montages of archival images of rep-
resentations of race in different guises, collaged to sit on top of
images of the map of Africa. The decision to utilize and embed
“factual material” was informed by a research method strongly
advocated at the RCA. This practice is evident here in the col-
lected scanned images from the British Museum and the Royal
College of Art Library.18 The collection includes Western histori-
cal representations of African women, female genitalia, minstrels,
illustrations of British soldiers gazing at the Hottentot Venus, illus-
trations and cartoons of colonizers and colonized, photographic
images of slave traders hanging African men, and photographic
images from eugenic literature, to name a few. These images are
presented as a rapid sequence of flashing images, first at the start
of the film, then again at interludes when projected onto the nude
female body (Figs. 5–6). They are used as a temporally efficient
device permitting Mukii to allude to the underpinning political
话语, without having to unpack them in narrative detail. 在
this way Mukii breaks from the drawn aesthetic of her animated
opening sequence with intervals of photographic performances
7 A digital photograph of Ezra Wube’s
studio showing the single canvas he uses to
iteratively change and capture with the digital
camera setup opposite.
8 A digital photograph of Ezra Wube’s stu-
dio showing his camera set-up and computer
that he uses to capture his animated paintings.
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
.
F
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
that are part-filmed and part-pixelated,19 and the subsequent mon-
tage sequences of archival images sit independently or embed-
ded within the performance as a projection. These interludes are
a marked visual break from the hair salon sequence, or later the
“recorded” conversations with mother and niece. They offer an
insight into Mukii’s private and personal contemplations of the
Western gaze and her concern for “this woman [WHO] 已经起作用了
hard to erase the element that marks her as truly African,” as
Mukii narrates in the film.
Five separate individuals were involved in the photographed
performances across the interludes between the drawn anima-
tion sequences. 然而, for the most part these are presented in
a similar one- or two-person setup, echoing her earlier approach
in Hasidi (2006). The central key character is framed in a black
space with face and hands that appear to be digitally painted-
超过 (in a similar vein to rotoscoping) to visibly whiten the
图像. At times a secondary character, an alter-ego, barely vis-
ible and darker in skin color, interacts with the main performer
encircling her in a taunting manner. She is made to appear at the
start as an annoyance and, like a fly, is swatted and pushed away.
This interaction reaches a climatic point where both performers
are superimposed (as a pixelated sequence) in rapid succession
on the same screen space to create a visual schizophrenic repre-
sentation of multiple identities.
On other occasions Mukii uses the performer’s body as a
canvas. Whether the body is presented as a still nude lying
horizontally, evoking a sense of landscape (如图. 5), or actively
performing, Mukii reuses her archival images to project upon
身体. Mukii also projects photographic images of the Kenyan
landscape upon the reclining nude. Her combination of Kenyan
landscape with the feminine body is an intentional device used
to “speak to a wider social issue” and alludes to a history of dis-
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 63
callus2.indd 63
28/05/2015 11:40 是
9 A still image from Ezra Wube’s Hold the Door
(2008) of a photograph of the artist with relatives
as a montage including drawn silhouetted figures of
nomads travelling within these frames.
sPaces anD Places within the Frame
A concern with identity is also present within the animations
of Ethiopian artist Ezra Wube as he explores his own mobility
and experience of different spaces between Ethiopia and the
美国. The majority of Wube’s animations foreground
specific conceptions of change and transition in space and time
as he reflects upon identity and migration.
Migrated individuals commonly realize there is no longer a singular
home. Strung between two cultures we are not fully one or the other.
The home is grounded in movement. The migrant needs to create his
own sense of belonging to make a relationship with the surrounding
environment.20
Ezra Wube emigrated from Addis Ababa, 埃塞俄比亚, 到
United States when he was eighteen. This experience has shaped
Wube’s sensibilities about home, 身份, and mobility, and these
are key features of his body of work. Wube originally trained in
courses on Orientalism and the feminization of the African
continent (Said 1993, Mudimbe 1988). Mukii’s accounts of these
memories bear witness to practices that continue to be prolific
in Kenya and sit within a history of discourses on beauty and
whiteness that stem from the colonial project (Mukii 2013).
Mukii’s approach to the structure of this animation raises ques-
tions about the “truth” and believability of the image that con-
tribute to the veridiction that informs the genre of “animated
documentary.” The anti-indexical qualities of animation in gen-
eral are particularly attractive to artists specifically concerned with
representational strategies of subalterns. In Yellow Fever the pho-
tographic inserts are deployed to cause reflection upon a history
of photography where the image was inscribed with relations of
power and intimately linked to the gaze (Tagg 1988, Mulvey 1975).
Some of the more dominant modes of documentary filmmaking
can be implicated in a wider historical and political discussion of
claims to “truths” embedded within the photographic image and
for this reason may appear to be inade-
夸特. Therefore it is worth reflecting upon
Mukii’s choice to represent her testimony
of the feminine experience of race and skin
color within the fabricated animated form
as intentionally self-referential. By adopt-
ing a process that overtly demonstrates its
制造, Mukii implicates documentary
filmmaking as, 部分地, responsible for the
condition she set out to critique.
0 A still image from Ezra Wube’s Hold the Door
(2008) of a mirrored door way with the silhouette of
the nomad.
64 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
F
/
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 64
28/05/2015 11:40 是
11 A single digital photograph, one of a
顺序, in Indamora (2009) where Ezra
Wube painted Amharic words on the window
of his studio in the US that he washed away
and captured iteratively.
绘画, gaining multiple painting awards before completing his
graduate studies in Fine Arts in 2004 at the Massachusetts Col-
lege of Art. 在 2003, he was awarded the Massachusetts Annual
Black Achievement Award and held his first one-person show at
the Dreams of Freedom Museum in Boston. 它是, 然而, 他的
interest in photography, 视频, and performance that led him to
discover their convergence within animation. Wube described
this medium from the viewpoint that
Some work needs to be experienced in time based format. It needs
to show how it is changing or unchanging. It needs a beginning and
an ending.21
Wube’s work demonstrates versatility in dissemination and con-
texts of viewership that echo the oscillation that Buchan (2012)
identifies within animation and its position in the high/low art
划分. 此外, its straddling of different aesthetic forms and
materials encourage their inclusion within and across different
contexts and genres. 十一月 2013, Wube was commissioned
to create an animated piece for the Times Square public art proj-
ect Midnight Moment. This project involved utilizing electronic
billboards and signs in a synchronized manner to screen and dis-
play different artists’ creative content. Wube’s At the Same Moment
(2013) consisted of animated paintings that illustrated Wube’s
While conscious of his ties to Ethiopia,
Wube’s artistic career developed in the
United States with fine art studies firmly
positioned within Western artistic prac-
tice while also engaging with the work
of some Ethiopian contemporary artists
such as Elias Sime, Behailu Bezabih, Dan-
iel Taye, and Henok Getachew, 也
groups such as the Netsa Village.22
在 2011 Wube’s animations travelled to a
range of countries in touring exhibitions,23
并在 2012 the breadth of his work again
extended from a host of video art festi-
vals, such as ARTchSO Africa Video Art
in Rennes, 法国, to film festivals such as
The Festival of Migrant Film in Ljubljana,
Slovenia, and the Annecy International
Animation Festival in France.
12 A single digital photograph, one of a
顺序, in Ezra Wube’s Indamora (2009) 的
the ink Amharic word metamorphosing into
silhouetted nomadic figures.
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 65
28/05/2015 11:40 是
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 65
13 An under-the-camera still image from Ezra
Wube’s Wenzu (2011) of a time-lapsed sequence of
beans sprouting and the animated forms made out
of Ethiopian foods such as injera.
memories and observations of travelling across New York City on
his daily journey to his studio.
still moving images
The oscillation of state between the still and moving (present/
过去的) in the animated image is a necessary consequence of its
存在, and it is even more evident in the case of the animated
painting than in other types of animation, due to the layering
of strokes upon a singular image. This type of animated paint-
ing necessitates the erasure of one state to make visible another
while at times leaving a trail of the preceding image as it moves
onto the next through time. Typically Wube’s canvas is hung on
the wall in his studio; directly across from it sits a camera wired
to a computer that captures these iterative changes in transition
(Figs. 7–8).24 In Wube’s films the narrative content does not fol-
low the typical Western linear model for storytelling, derivative
of Disney’s hyperrealist treatment of movement and form, 也不
is it underpinned by cinematographic convention. The process
of painting in a continuous fashion on one canvas lends itself
towards a metamorphic treatment of the story, with depiction
of space and movement that fluidly changes from one form to
其他. This specific process goes beyond its rudimentary pur-
pose as a vehicle to tell a story and holds a deeper significance
for Wube through his own experience of moving forward.
My animation process is one-way, absolutely forward, imitating the
flux or unpredictability of life. After each frame is constructed I take
a still photo and construct the next frame on top of it. The entire ani-
mation is usually painted on a single surface [canvas]. If I make a
mistake there is no way to go back but to redo the entire scene.25
This process is visible in the animations I Came from the Sky
(2006), Hisab (2011), and Yarawit Digis (2102). 这里, Wube utilizes
metamorphic transitions to compress the experience of journeying
through unlikely “fantastical” stories. The process offers an econom-
ical compression of the key components needed to tell the story.
In his other pieces Hold the Door [Hulet] (2008), When We
All Met (2009), Indamora (2009), and New Home [Addis Bet]
(2013), Wube illustrates the more hybrid nature of the animated
形式, visible through the spatial and temporal collages. Wube
creates these moving images through a combination of seem-
ingly disparate elements within one pictorial space. The visual
collage serves to present the viewer with a direct confrontation
of different visual locators, such as a photograph of a New York
café and a painting of silhouetted Ethiopian nomadic figures
that appear and reappear throughout the dislocated places of
工作. These synchronous juxtapositions of images through
time reinforce the impression of the multiple spaces that Wube
calls upon within his animations. Like Naficy’s accented cinema,
Wube’s Hold the Door can be “simultaneously global and local”
and exist “in chaotic semiautonomous pockets in symbiosis with
the dominant and other alternative cinemas” (Naficy 2001:19).
The aesthetic forms of these convergent elements are inflected
with accents from different contexts, whereby the pictorial mon-
tage denotes this “transnational quality” or accent.
例如, in Hold the Door Wube represents and collapses
different spaces and “realities” using collage and drawn animation.
Here the film begins with a drawn graphite animation. The screen
is split into two mirrored parts and a silhouetted “journeyer”
divides into two people moving in opposite directions through
the doors (Figs. 9–10). These nomads appear almost always to be
displaced, removed from a place they would normally inhabit, 在
constant movement to or from somewhere, through New York
skylines, and on maps, or through the windows in cafés. In Hold
the Door, the sequence splits the figure as it alternates the black
and white compositional elements in a montage between mir-
ror images of the left and right of screen. These types of framing
devices are used throughout the animation in the form of a mir-
ror, doorway, or window or an embedded picture within a shot.
The viewer is repeatedly confronted with photographic imagery
of interior spaces such as cafés, studios, or shops in New York,
66 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 66
28/05/2015 11:40 是
14 An under-the-camera still image from Ezra
Wube’s Wenzu (2011) of a time-lapsed sequence of
beans sprouting and the animated forms made out
of lentils, 种子, spices, and other food.
predominantly with cutout windows or doorways in frame. 在
these sequences Wube uses the collage to allow for the animated
drawings of the nomadic figures to appear through the window or
doorway travelling through an empty space.26
With Indamora, the camera served to capture the combina-
tion of fabricated image superimposed upon a photographic
time-lapse of a view from a window with the trace of the artist’s
行动. It is within the intervals of each exposure by the cam-
era that Wube makes and unmakes the animated image, as he
paints and washes away the strokes. In Indamora Wube super-
imposes ink painting on acetate placed on top of a windowpane
in his US studio looking out onto a view of a construction site.
His images combine letters from Amharic Fidel that morph into
silhouetted impressions of the figures that appear throughout
his other work (Figs. 11–12). At the start he washes the ink away
at different moments causing the disappearance of the previous
图像, but still leaving its traces on the next image in the form
of the trails of ink and water that trickle down the frame. 这
process of “washing away” images can arguably be seen as hav-
ing a cathartic function whereby the artist negotiates a tension
between past and present and the personal locators associated
with these different times.
[乙]ach scene is washed away, the unconscious consumption of time
is exposed. In this process the confinement to a singular authentic-
ity is forever gone even though it has been documented. 该纪录片-
mentation serves as an indexical vehicle that captures the past. 这
purpose of documentation is not to preserve, but to serve as a bridge,
connecting the past with the present, the internal with the external.27
This provides scope to discuss the actions employed as hav-
ing purpose beyond the aesthetic result that can be achieved,
例如, when using these techniques within production
of a singular image versus a sequence of moving images. 之后
the nomadic figures journey from left to right of screen across
a horizon line made up of a cut-out map. The combination of
different materials and the specific process of rendition are inti-
mately connected to Wube’s interest in location and identity.
This mix of techniques and materials between the animated
ink drawings, cutouts and timelapse is not unique to Indamora,
but is also visible in his other films like When We All Met, Wenzu
(2011), and Hidar (2012). In When We All Met, Wube’s depiction
of a family reunion is thick with layers of personal photographic
元素, pencil drawings, textural objects such as textile and
threads, cut-outs and ink, and direct references to his paintings.
Wube returns to the familial and personal setting in the mixed
media piece Wenzu, whose title means “The River” and was
based upon a local narrative about the hyena that accuses the
donkey for dirtying the water downstream. 然而, the sound
was taken from a 2004 recording of the artist’s grandmother
recounting the story while cooking. This element immediately
conveys a sense of intimate place. The sequence, like Indamora,
involved a performative process where the artist used under-the-
camera techniques, leaving traces of his actions in the trails of
liquid and textures on the image.
Beans planted in the first scene grew in parallel with the story’s
发展. In this piece I was experimenting with the idea of
unexpected events intervening with my work. I built a greenhouse,
planted beans and animated the story using grains, salt and dirt on
a glass surface above the beans … It was a meditative ritualistic pro-
过程; watering the plants, and preparing Ethiopian food.28
The animation combined different sequences of the prepara-
tion of Ethiopian food, the chopping of tomatoes, onions, 和
spices, the mixing of lentils, the planting of seeds in dirt, 和
the time-lapse of the beans that grow (Figs. 13–14). These dif-
ferent parts were in turn used to compose the animated image,
as impressions of the silhouette of the hyena and donkey were
made visible drinking at a river’s edge. The resulting images have
a textural quality and appear to metamorphose between different
状态. In a similar vein to Indamora, the sequence also included
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 67
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
/
F
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
.
F
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 67
28/05/2015 11:40 是
elements that the artist could not control, such as the time-lapse
豆子. These aspects of the moving image allude to the tensions
between animation, automated processing of images, 和
all-important interval between frames that denotes interjection.
These concerns are foregrounded in van Veuren’s minutes 2010:
time/bodies/rhythm/Johannesburg (2010) short film.
DisruPting the inDex
The minutes 2010 film further explores the poetic potential of the
material by allowing chance juxtapositions of composited spaces and
temporalities to create a hybrid, dreamlike landscape, touching more
on memory and desire than documentary or indexical concerns (van
Veuren 2012:96).
While Mocke Jansen van Veuren described his collaborative
project with Theresa Collins on the minutes 2010 time-lapses as
an examination of the index within the photographic image, 他的
involvement with animation and the animated process would
suggest a more considered interaction between the discourses on
the animated form and the photographic. Van Veuren (乙. 1976) 是
based in Johannesburg, 南非. He studied Fine Art at the
University of the Witwatersrand and during this time he started
experimenting with animation, graduating in 1999 with a Bach-
elor of Fine Art. He has experience as a professional animator. 在
2002 he also began lecturing in multimedia. The Minutes project
ran between 2005 和 2011 in collaboration with artist Theresa
Collins to study spaces and movement and consisted of a series
of time-lapse experiments taken within the city.29 The specific
part of the project cited here moves beyond a single sequence
of time-lapsed images and instead consists of a superimposed
digital composite of different time-lapsed spaces; a panopticon
view of the lower taxi rank at the Bree Street Metro Mall and a
below-the-water view of a public swimming pool. Van Veuren’s
background in animation and interest in the “secret gap between
frames” (van Veuren 2011), alongside the manual clicking of an
old Bolex shutter release for the timelapse projects, cohered in
minutes 2010: time/bodies/rhythm/Johannesburg (2010) 哪个
presented the tension between the causality and interruption of
the photographic image.
[C]ontrast between these practices [animation and time-lapse] 是
marked, and laying them beside each other is revealing. Both deal
with time, both involve meticulous labour that produces as an
effect some kind of moving trace, a new temporality, the selection
of moments from a continuous duration (at the same time discard-
ing durations) and in a more complex way—a kind of erasure of the
作者 (van Veuren 2011).
Van Veuren’s intention was to capture the empirical trace that
denoted movement using a mechanical process. 然而, 那里
are moments in his process that are instigated by volition, alter-
ing and interjecting upon the recorded image. 此外,
his reflections on his blog timerythmntrace suggest that van
Veuren’s concerns with the sequence of images are a result of
his engagement with animation practices and a concern for the
in-between spaces, between still and moving, between recorded
and fabricated. Van Veuren and Collin’s edited short piece, min-
utes 2010: time/bodies/rhythm/Johannesburg stands apart from
the other experiments in that, by his own admission, this piece
leans towards a more poetic exploration of space, “moving away
from documentary mode” (van Veuren 2012:67). It is within this
digital superimposition of different spaces that a rendition of
an impossible space appears. In a surreal moment, the ceiling
of the rank seems to disappear below a veil of water; the whole
taxi rank appears to be below water with people swimming
多于. 所以, while this final example sets out to engage with
notions of the index and photographic trace, these digital injec-
系统蒸发散, albeit seamless, suggest that even within an image that is
entirely photographic in aesthetic it is possible to locate the trace
of the animator.
analog Digital
Finally it must be noted that any discussion of the photograph
in contemporary animation practice would not be complete
without the recognition and impact of digital technologies upon
these processes and the implied conceptual shift that occurs as a
result of the mutability of the digital. Most of the examples cited
在本文中, even when captured on 16mm film, have subse-
quently been moved into a digital platform, converted to a digi-
tal format, and distributed over a virtual digital network on the
互联网. At its most extreme, computer-generated animation
can find itself invisibly inserted within the photographic or pre-
sented entirely as a perfect simulation of the photographic, 在哪里
the fabricated image is no longer distinguishable. The tendency
for the digital animated image to pervade into other genres such
as computer games, film, and popular media has also ensured
that animation artists experiment with a range of aesthetics,
including the photographic. This mutable quality is mirrored in
the African animators and artists who are engaging with these
技术. As digital creatives they are able to interchange-
ably present themselves as “filmmakers,” visual (digital) artists,
graphic designers, animators, and even computer programmers.
It is under these guises that it is possible to encounter a new gen-
eration of African artists who are exploring photographic pro-
cess in the realm of interpolation.30
Paula Callus is senior lecturer at the National Centre of Computer
Animation at Bournemouth University. Her expertise is in sub-Saharan
African animation, with previous experience in this field including educa-
tional consultancy and training for UNESCO’s Africa Animated projects
and compiling animation programmes for various festivals such as Africa
in Motion (爱丁堡), Cambridge African Film Festival, Meknes Anima-
tion Festival (摩洛哥), and Africa at the Pictures (伦敦). PCallus@
bournemouth.ac.uk.
Notes
1 Here pixelation refers to the stop-motion ani-
mated technique where actor’s poses are captured at
incremental images (in a similar vein to stop-motion
puppets).
2 There are some notable exceptions of artists
whose animated moving images have garnered sig-
nificant attention such as South African William Ken-
tridge’s 9 Drawings for Projection (2005) and recently
Kenyan Wangechi Mutu’s digital animated moving
images in The End of Eating Everything (2013).
3 While this may be no longer true with examples
of computer-generated animations that represent a
“photo-real” aesthetic and aim to be indistinguishable
from the indexical equivalent, the historical trajectory
of mainstream animation in Europe and America saw a
predominance of representations of anthropomorphic
68 | african arts autumn 2015 卷. 48, 不. 3
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
F
/
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 68
28/05/2015 11:40 是
characters and fantastical narratives with a cartoon
aesthetic (based upon cell animation techniques).
4
In rotoscoping, the artist traces over a sequence
of photographed image frames in film (or digital
图片) to create a similar sequence of drawn images
that retain aspects of the “realistic” qualities of move-
ment found in the original reference. 最近
is has been used in different 2D animation genres to
explore aesthetic realism and notions of verisimilitude.
5 To add to this, in the context of digital photo-
graphic images the discussion of the visibility or invis-
ibility of fabrication, 改造, or distortion brought
about by computer-generated imagery has raised
questionable concern on the “realism” of an image that
while appearing to be photographic may in actual fact
be for the most part fabricated. For a more detailed dis-
cussion on these ideas see Prince 1996, Manovich 2001,
McClean 2007, Doane 2007, Gunning 2004.
6 The piece was included in the exhibition TRNS-
MSSN that was held at the Goethe-Institut, 内罗毕,
May 5–16, 2009.
7 Digital compositing uses software to assemble
different digital images seamlessly into a complete
composition with the intention to create a believable
photorealistic rendition of a scene, usually within the
realm of special effects in film.
Interview, Kenneth Coker, 十一月 5, 2012.
8
9
Interview, Kenneth Coker, 十一月 5, 2012.
10 The range of photographs could include images
of patterns, textures of objects, different environments,
图纸, and paintings. They may appear within the
moving image as 2D digital cut-outs or may be pro-
jected onto three-dimensional models as textures.
11 The resulting visible image made possible
through the computational mathematical calculations
of the relative position, 角度, and lighting of a virtual
environment in relation to the camera.
12 The college has since merged with Surrey Insti-
tute of Art and Design to form the University for the
Creative Arts in 2008.
13 Since completing her studies, her animations
have been screened at different festivals. 这些包括
winning Best Animated Short at the Chicago Interna-
tional Film Festival in 2013, Official Selection for the
Pan-African Film Festival 2014, Official Selection for
the Montreal International Black Film Festival 2013,
Chagrin Documentary Film Festival, K. 2013 Internatio-
nale Kurtzfilmtage Winterhur.
Interview, Ng’endo Mukii, 一月 13, 2014.
Interview, Ng’endo Mukii, 四月 22, 2014.
14
15
16 之间 2012 和 2014, the short, seven-minute
film won a range of awards including being voted third
place in the documentary category for the Afrinolly
Short Film Competition; the Silver Hugo for Best
Animated Short at the 49th Chicago International Film
Festival, 我们; Nominated in The Nahemi Student Film
Awards at the Encounters Short Film Festival, 布里斯托尔,
英国; Best Short Film Award at the Africa Magic View-
ers’ Choice Awards, in Lagos, 尼日利亚; Best Animation
Award at the 7th Kenya International Film Festival,
内罗毕, 肯尼亚; Nominated for Best Short Film Award
Colours of the Nile Film Festival Addis Ababa, 埃塞俄比亚.
17 Mkorogo is a Swahili term also used to refer to
a popular toxic skin bleaching concoction used in East
非洲.
18
19 Here pixelation refers to the stop-motion animated
Interview, Ng’endo Mukii, 四月 23, 2014.
technique where actor’s poses are captured at incremental
图片 (in a similar vein to stop-motion puppets).
20 Interview, Ezra Wube, 八月 25, 2012.
Interview, Ezra Wube, 八月 25, 2012.
Interview, Ezra Wube, 八月 25, 2012.
21
22
23 These include Cologne OFF 2011 video art festi-
val “Art & the City’, and a collection of short film festi-
vals, international animation festivals and African film
festivals. Of notable mention are the International Black
Film Festival, Nashville, Tennessee; Afrika in Motion
Film Festival, 爱丁堡, 英国; Silicon Valley African
Film Festival, Mountain View, 加利福尼亚州; Ottawa
International Animation Festival, Ottawa, 加拿大;
Under African Skies, Tria Gallery, 纽约. Wube also
accepted a placement as artist in resident at Château de
la Napoule, 法国, the Contemporary Artists Center
(CAC), Woodside, Troy, 纽约, and The Substation,
Johannesburg, 南非.
24 Interview, Ezra Wube, 十二月 13, 2014.
25
Interview, Ezra Wube, 八月 25, 2012.
26 A similar premise is reused in Zemed (2012), A
series of photographs with cutout inserted photographs
that superimpose silhouetted shapes of things com-
monly encountered in Ethiopia, over Wube’s environ-
ment in the US. In the image one can see Wube’s hand
in shot as it holds the cutout photograph on a paperclip
in front of the camera.
27 Ezra Wube, personal website. www.ezrawube.
网; 九月访问 10, 2012.
28 Interview, Ezra Wube, 八月 25, 2012.
29 Van Veuren talks about the Minutes Proj-
ect on YouTube https://www.youtube.com/
手表?v=6zSfxCZYL98
30 Interpolation occurs in computer animation
when the computer calculates and fills in the frames
between the key frames that are set by the animator, 或者
the smooth transition from one position/form to another.
References cited
巴特, 右. 1982. Camera Lucida. 伦敦: 乔纳森
Cape.
Baudrillard, J. 2009. Why Hasn’t Everything Already Dis-
appeared? 反式. C. 车工. 伦敦: Seagull Books.
_______. 1983. Simulcra and Simulation, 反式. S. Faria
Glaser. 安娜堡: 密歇根大学.
Bazin, A. 1960. “The Ontology of the Photographic
图像,” trans. H. Gray. Film Quarterly 13 (4):4–9.
Bazzoli, M.S. 2003 African Cartoons. 米兰: Editrice
Il Castoro.
Bendazzi, G. 2004. “African Cinema Animation.” Enter
Text 4 (1):10–26.
Callus, 磷. 2012. “Reading Animation through the Eyes
of Anthropology: A Case Study of Sub-Saharan African
Animation.” Animation 7 (2):113–30.
_______. 2010A. “Animation as a Socio-political Com-
mentary: An Analysis of the Animated Films of Con-
golese Director Jean Michel Kibushi.” Journal of African
Media Studies 2 (1):55–71.
_______. 2010乙. “Reflections on Animation … An
interview by Paula Callus with J.M. Kibushi.” In Through
African Eyes: Conversations with the Directors. 新的
约克: African Film Festival Inc.
Convents, G. 2014. Images and Animation: Le Cinema
d’animation en Afrique Centrale, 布鲁塞尔: AfrikaFilm
Festival, SIGNIS, Studio MalembeMaa.
_______. 2003. “Da artigiano a professionista. La lunga
e difficile strada di una passion.” In African Cartoons,
编辑. M.S. Bazzoli, PP. 67–71. 米兰: Editrice Il Castoro.
Doane, 嘛. 2007. “The Indexical and the Concept of
Medium Specificity.” Differences 18 (1):128–59.
Edera, 乙. 1996. “African Animation.” In Drawing Insight:
Communicating Development through Animation, 编辑.
J. Greene and D. Reber, p. 111. Malaysia: Southbound
出版商.
_______. 1993. A La Decouverte d’un Cinema Meconnu;
Le Cinema D’Animation Africain. Annecy: Centre Inter-
national du Cinema d’Animation d’Annecy.
Furniss, 中号. 1998. Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics.
Herts: John Libbey Publishers.
Gunning, 时间. 2004. “What’s the Point of an Index? 或者
Faking Photographs.” Nordicom Review 5 (1/2):39–49.
Hernandez, 中号. L. 2007. “The Double Sense of the Ani-
mated Image: A View on the Paradoxes of Animation as
a Visual Language’.” Animation Studies 2:36–44.
Manovich, L. 2001. The Language of New Media. 凸轮-
桥, 嘛: 与新闻界.
McClean, S. 2007. Digital Storytelling: The Narrative Power
of Visual Effects in Film. 剑桥, 嘛: 与新闻界.
米切尔, 瓦. 2001. The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in
the Post-Photographic Era. 伦敦: 与新闻界.
莫里茨, 瓦. 1988. “Some Observations on Non-Objective
and Non-Linear Animation.” Storytelling in Animation:
The Art of the Animated Image 2:21–32.
Mudimbe, V.Y. 1988. The Invention of Africa, Blooming-
吨: Indiana University Press.
Mukii, 氮. 2013. “Ng’endo Mukii: Sweet Art Artist
Portrait.” Sweet’Art Vimeo Channel, https://vimeo.com/
user15754659; accessed April 15, 2014.
Mulvey, L. 1975. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cin-
ema.” Screen 154 (3):6–8.
Naficy, H. 2001. An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Dia-
sporic Filmmaking. 牛津: 普林斯顿大学出版社.
Nora, 磷. 1989. “Between Memory and History; Les Lieux
de Memoire.” Representations 26:7–24.
王子, S. 1996. “True Lies: Perceptual Realism, Digital
图片, and Film Theory.” Film Quarterly 49 (3):27–37.
Said, 乙. 1993. Culture and Imperialism, 纽约: 克诺夫.
Sontag, S. 1973. On Photography. 纽约: Rosetta Books.
Tagg, J. 1988. The Burden of Representation: Essays on
Photographies and Histories. 伦敦: MacMillan.
Van Veuren, M.J. 2012. The Rhythms of Minutes:
Henri Lefebvre’s Rhythmanalysis and an Investigation
of Spatial Practices of a Selected Public Site in Urban
Johannesburg. 嘛. 论文 (Fine Art), 大学
Johannesburg.
_______. 2011. “Temporalities of Animation and
Timelapse.” timerythmntrace [blog], 六月 12. http://
timerhythmtrace.wordpress.com/author/timerhythm-
trace/, Accessed December 20, 2014.
韦尔斯, 磷. 1998. Understanding Animation. 伦敦:
劳特利奇.
_______. 1997. “The Beautiful Village and the True Vil-
lage: A Consideration of Animation and the Documen-
tary Aesthetic.” In Art & Animation of Art & 设计, 不.
12, 编辑. 磷. 韦尔斯, PP. 40–46. 伦敦: Academy Group.
Wood, M.L. 2007. “The Double-Sense of Animated
Images.” Animation Studies 2:36–44.
卷. 48, 不. 3 autumn 2015 african arts | 69
我
D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d
F
r
哦
米
H
t
t
p
:
/
/
d
我
r
e
C
t
.
米
我
t
.
F
/
e
d
你
A
A
r
/
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d
我
F
/
/
/
/
/
4
8
3
5
8
1
7
3
6
5
5
7
A
A
r
_
A
_
0
0
2
3
9
p
d
F
.
F
乙
y
G
你
e
s
t
t
哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3
callus2.indd 69
28/05/2015 11:40 是
