D O C U M E N T I N T R O D U C T I O N

inTrodUcTion To alioUne diop’s
“arT and peace” (1966)

lauren taylor

In­April­of­1966,­thousands­of­fi­rst-time­visitors­to­Senegal­fl­ooded­
the­freshly­renovated­gates­of­the­Dakar-Yoff­International­Airport­to­
attend­the­Premier­Festival­Mondial­des­Arts­Nègres,­or­First­World­
Festival­of­Negro­Arts.­People­from­around­the­world­had­been­
drawn­to­the­nation,­then­six­years­independent­from­France,­by­an­
event­unlike­anything­that­had­ever­before­taken­place­on­the­African­
continent.­As­the­decolonization­of­Africa­and­the­growth­of­Black­
empowerment­movements­transformed­the­global­geopolitical­land-
scape,­the­festival­offered­a­24-day­celebration­of­dance,­theater,­
musique,­literature,­and­visual­arts,­all­by­African­and­African-
descended­creators.­Senegalese­President­Léopold­Sédar­Senghor­
called­the­festival­a­“defense­and­illustration­of­Négritude,”­and­
en effet,­the­event­granted­increased­visibility­to­the­conceptualization­
of­Black­identity­that­the­president­had­helped­formulate­beginning­
in­the­1930s.1­But­hand­in­hand­with­their­commitment­to­Black­
uplift,­the­festival’s­organizers­asserted­that­the­event­must­also­play­
a­role­in­the­pursuit­of­a­yet­broader­goal:­the­attainment­of­world­
peace.­Alioune­Diop,­the­president­of­the­Festival’s­organizing­

1­

Léopold­Sédar­Senghor,­“The­Function­and­Meaning­of­the­First­World­Festival­of­Negro­
Arts,”­African Forum­1,­no.­4­(1966).

© 2020 ARTMargins and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

https://doi.org/10.1162/artm_a_00274

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­committee,­proclaimed­the­event’s­relationship­to­this­ambitious­
objective­in­“Art­and­Peace,”­the­first­essay­to­appear­in­the­Festival’s­
official­livre d’or,­or­guidebook.2­

Addressing­the­uncertain­future­of­mankind,­thrown­ever­into­
imbalance­by­the­mounting­tensions­of­the­Cold­War,­the­devastating­
toll­of­World­War­II,­and­the­yet-undecided­future­of­newly­formed­
African­states,­Diop­argued­that­the­resolution­of­international­conflicts­
would­rely­on­the­international­exchange­of­cultural­achievements.­The­
arts,­in­his­view,­offered­to­create­mutual­understanding­between­peo-
ples­by­fostering­a­depth­of­intercultural­empathy­that­was­unattainable­
through­political­agreements­or­persuasive­language.­Thus,­for­Diop,­
creating­networks­through­which­to­share­the­arts—such­as­the­nexus­
of­artists­and­audiences­generated­by­the­1966­Festival—enacted­an­
urgent­step­toward­global­reconciliation.­

For­present-day­scholars,­Diop’s­impassioned­call­to­arts­illustrates­

the­wide-reaching­potential­that­a­number­of­independence-era­West­
African­leaders­associated­with­the­creation­and­circulation­of­visual­cul-
ture.­“Art­and­Peace”­also­sheds­light­on­two­understudied­influences­on­
Black­internationalist­thought,­invoking­the­midcentury­philosophies­of­
the­Catholic­Church­and­the­United­Nations­Educational,­Scientific,­and­
Cultural­Organization­(UNESCO).3­But­Diop’s­essay­is­perhaps­most­pre-
scient­in­its­identification­of­the­paradoxes­that­the­era’s­increasingly­
global­exhibition­itineraries­thrust­upon­the­continent’s­artists.­His­discus-
sion­of­the­responsibilities­facing­contemporary­African­artists­provides­an­
illuminating­precursor­to­present-day­debates­surrounding­what­it­means­
to­identify­as­an­African­artist­amid­an­ever-globalizing­art­market.4­

2­

3­

4­

Before­the­essay,­a­brief­foreword­by­President­Senghor­appears.­Premier Festival Mondial
Des Arts Nègres: Dakar, 1/24 Avril 1966 (Livre D’or)­(Paris:­Atelier­Bernard­Gaulin,­1966).
Elizabeth­Foster’s­recent­book­illuminates­some­of­the­ways­in­which­the­Catholic­Church­
and­independence-era­African­leaders­influenced­one­another,­and­it­makes­a­powerful­case­
for­the­importance­of­studying­these­connections­further.­Elizabeth­A.­Foster,­African
Catholic: Decolonization and the Transformation of the Church­(Cambridge:­Harvard­
University­Press,­2019).
Voir,­for­example,­Rasheed­Araeen,­“Dak’art­1992–2002:­The­Problems­of­Representation,­
Contextualization,­and­Critical­Evaluation­in­Contemporary­African­Art­as­Presented­by­­
the­Dakar­Bienniale,”­Third Text­1­(2003);­Olu­Oguibe,­The Culture Game­(Minneapolis:­
University­of­Minnesota­Press,­2004);­Okwui­Enwezor­and­Chika­Okeke-Agulu,­“Networks­
of­Practice:­Globalization,­Geopolitics,­Geopoetics,”­in­Contemporary African Art since 1980,­
ed.­Okwui­Enwezor­and­Chika­Okeke-Agulu­(Bologna:­Damiani,­2009).

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The “Unknown BUilder of The Black world,” alioUne diop5

If­the­globalist­ambitions­underpinning­the­1966­Festival­have­been­
underrecognized,­this­is­in­part­a­result­of­the­insufficient­scholarly­
attention­granted­to­the­author­of­“Art­and­Peace.”­Best­known­as­the­
founding­editor­of­the­literary­review­Présence Africaine (1947–),­Diop­
remains­an­otherwise­unsung­architect­of­Négritude­thought­amid­nar-
ratives­attributing­its­development­to­three­better-known­protagonists:­
Senghor,­Léon-Gontran­Damas,­and­Aimé­Césaire.6­Diop,­however,­
engineered­the­forums­that­facilitated­the­exchange­of­ideas­between­
Black­intellectuals­of­the­1940s,­50s,­and­60s,­organizing­the­confer-
ences­and­founding­the­publications­responsible­for­launching­
Négritude­thought­beyond­the­Black­Parisian­intelligentsia.­“Art­and­
Peace,”­a­declaration­of­the­vital­importance­of­intercultural­exchange,­
might­thus­be­understood­as­a­kind­of­unofficial­manifesto­revealing­
the­values­and­beliefs­that­guided­Diop’s­career-long­efforts­to­support­
the­circulation­of­artistic­and­intellectual­work.

Diop’s­own­formation­crossed­international­borders.­Born­in­1910­

in­Saint-Louis,­Senegal,­to­a­Muslim­family,­he­studied­classics­at­the­
University­in­Algeria,­and­in­1937,­he­moved­to­Paris­to­attend­the­
Sorbonne.­There,­Diop­formed­relationships­with­leaders­in­the­fields­of­
philosophy,­politics,­and­religion.­He­organized­gatherings­of­students­
from­various­regions­affected­by­French­colonialism,­generating­a­
loosely­defined­social­group­of­young­anticolonial­intellectuals­nick-
named­the­cercle du Père Diop.7­Diop’s­mentorship­became­especially­
vital­to­the­flourishing­of­Black­Parisian­student­communities­during­
the­early­years­of­the­Second­World­War,­in­the­absence­of­Césaire,­who­

5­

6­

7­

The­lack­of­recognition­afforded­to­Diop­for­his­role­in­Négritude­thought­and­Black­inter-
nationalism­is­the­basis­of­the­subtitle­of­a­biography­about­him,­which­this­section­title­
adopts—Alioune Diop: The Unknown Builder of the Black World.­See­Frédéric­Grah­Mel,­
Alioune Diop Le Bâtisseur Inconnu Du Monde Noir­(Abidjan:­Presses­Universitaires­de­Côte­
d’Ivoire,­1995).
Léopold­Sédar­Senghor,­“Preface­Letter,”­in­The Surreptitious Speech: Présence Africaine and
the Politics of Otherness, 1947–1987,­ed.­V.­Y.­Mudimbe­(Chicago:­University­of­Chicago­Press,­
1992).­In­addition­to­Diop,­Césaire,­and­Damas,­Senghor­names­Jacques­Rabemananjara­as­
one­of­Négritude’s­founders.­The­three-founder­origin­story­of­Négritude­has­been­increas-
ingly­problematized­by­scholars­who­have­identified­the­important­female­voices­that­it­
excludes.­See­T.­Denean­Sharpley-Whiting,­Negritude Women­(Minneapolis:­University­of­
Minnesota­Press,­2003).
Foster,­African Catholic: Decolonization and the Transformation of the Church,­65.­Elizabeth­
Foster­describes­Diop’s­arrival­in­Paris,­the­professional­relationships­that­he­formed,­and­
the­support­that­he­provided­for­the­city’s­Black­students.­

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had­returned­to­Martinique,­and­Senghor­and­Damas,­both­of­whom­
served­in­the­French­armed­forces.

Ever­expanding­his­cercle,­in­1947­Diop­released­the­founding­vol-

ume­of­Présence Africaine.­Diop­declared the­journal­to­be­devoted­to­
three­objectives:­(1)­circulating­literary­texts­by­African­people,­(2)­pub-
lishing­studies­on­African­culture­and­civilization,­and­(3)­sharing­
reviews­of­arts­and­literature­created­by­African­and­African-descended­
people.8­A­testament­to­his­powerful­network,­the­first­edition­of­
Présence Africaine­was­endorsed­by­a­“patronage­committee”­that­
included­Senghor,­Césaire,­André­Gide,­Michel­Leiris,­Jean-Paul­Sartre,­
Richard­Wright,­and­other­contemporary­luminaries.­Reflecting­upon­
Diop’s­contributions,­Senghor­called­Présence Africaine­“the­primary­
instrument­of­the­Négritude­movement.”9­But­because­various­
approaches­to­African­identity­and­liberation­advocated­different­routes­
to­success­in­newly­independent­nations,­which­were­divided­especially­
on­the­matter­of­whether­capitalist­or­socialist­economies­would­best­
support­the­continent’s­emerging­states,­Diop­refused­for­the­journal­­
to­become­the­mouthpiece­of­a­particular­doctrine,­instead­hoping­it­
would­provide­mutual­visibility­between­viewpoints.10

Présence Africaine gained­popularity­quickly­and­internationally;­
in­1949,­a­publishing­house­and­bookstore­was­founded­in­its­name.­
Through­the­journal,­Diop­organized­the­First­Congress­of­Black­
Writers­and­Artists­(1956),­a­Paris­meeting­of­Black­intellectuals­from­
around­the­world.­According­to­attendee­James­Baldwin,­Diop­called­­
the­conference­a­“second­Bandung,”­as­it­was,­like­its­Indonesian­­
predecessor,­a­massive­convening­of­individuals­devoted­to­establishing­

8­

9­

10­

Alioune­Diop,­“Niam­N’goura:­Ou­Les­Raisons­D’être­De­Présence­Africaine,”­Présence
Africaine,­no.­1­(1947).
Senghor,­“Preface­Letter.”­On­the­legacy­of­Présence Africaine,­see­V.­Y.­Mudimbe,­ed.,­
The Surreptitious Speech: Présence Africaine and the Politics of Otherness, 1947–1987­(Chicago:­
University­of­Chicago­Press,­1992).­
Earlier­writings­by­Diop­suggest­that­he­viewed­doctrinal­thinking,­or­the­promotion­of­a­
given­ideology­at­the­expense­of­others,­as­the­very­sort­of­oppressive­action­that­Présence
Africaine had­been­created­to­counteract.­Writing­on­the­liberation­of­African­subjects­in­
1962,­for­example,­he­remarked,­“Our­nationalism­is­not­truly­a­doctrine­that­should­be­
fought,­as­was­the­case­for­many­nationalisms­that­sprang­from­the­West.­Ours­is­not­a­way­
of­thinking­rigidly­and­coherently­developed­from­other­doctrines­just­as­rigid­and­coher-
ent.­The­nationalism­of­the­nonwhites­carries­more­weight­than­a­pure­doctrine.­It­is­not­
inspired­by­the­aggressive­and­barbarian­dialectic­of­Hitler­or­Mussolini­who­tried­to­domi-
nate­the­West­through­a­shameful­and­monstrously­criminal­racism.”­Alioune­Diop,­
“Political­and­Social­Solidarity­in­Africa,”­Journal of Human Relations­10­(1962):­251.

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solidarity­in­the­worldwide­fight­against­colonialism­and­racism.11­But­
the­1956­Paris­Congress­was­unprecedented­in­taking­cultural—rather­
than­political—decolonization­as­its­primary­object­of­inquiry.­For­Diop,­
focusing­on­culture­was­a­way­of­directing­attention­to­the­most­funda-
mental­source­of­disagreement­and­the­most­encompassing­grounds­for­
healing;­he­understood­culture­to­be­the­“origin­of­political­thought,”­
and­believed­that­the­cultural­sphere’s­role­was­to­“supply,­inspire­and­
enlighten­our­most­basic­substance­of­politics.”12

At­a­second­rendition­of­the­Congress­of­Black­Writers­and­Artists,­

held­in­Rome­in­1959,­the­first­seeds­for­the­First­World­Festival­of­
Negro­Arts­were­sown­when­a­formal­resolution­was­adopted­recom-
mending­that­the­next­Congress­be­accompanied­by­a­multimedia­festi-
val.­After­decades­of­derogatory­representation­fueled­by­colonialism­
and­white­supremacist­thought,­organizers­deemed­it­urgent­to­provide­
an­internationally­visible­platform­through­which­Africans­and­other­
African-descended­people­were­portrayed­in­a­positive­light,­speaking­
on­their­own­behalf­through­their­arts.13­Seven­years­later,­the­festival­
imagined­by­this­resolution­was­finally­realized­as­the­First­World­
Festival­of­Negro­Arts.

On­the­occasion­of­its­opening,­visitors­opening­their­guidebook­
were­met­with­“Art­and­Peace,”­its­location­as­the­volume’s­first­essay­
positioning­it­as­a­kind­of­mission­statement.­Diop’s­entry­addresses­
three­themes,­reflecting­the­author’s­understanding­of­human­subjectiv-
ity­as­a­composite­of­three­dimensions:­the­religious,­the­moral,­and­the­
artistic.­Diop­ultimately­concludes­that­the­most­effective­approach­to­
establishing­intercultural­empathy­is­to­appeal­to­one­another’s­artistic­
sensibilities.­Still,­his­brief­discussions­of­religion­and­morality­merit­
study.­These­sections­prompt­today’s­readers­to­reconsider­the­historical­
relationships­linking­Black­internationalist­thought­to­the­contempora-
neous­visions­of­a­peaceful­future­world­espoused,­on­the­one­hand,­by­
the­Catholic­Church,­and­on­the­other,­by­UNESCO.

11­

James­Baldwin,­“Princes­and­Powers,”­in­The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction,
1948–1985­(New­York:­St.­Martin’s,­1951,­reprinted­1999),­42.­

12­ Diop,­“Political­and­Social­Solidarity­in­Africa,”­251.
13­

The­representation­of­the­continent­through­creative­outlets,­the­committee­wrote,­“can­be­
of­extraordinary­value­to­the­native­states­of­Africa­(or­of­imminent­harm,­if­delivered­to­
remain­by­default,­under­alien­domination).”­­The Unity of Negro African Cultures: Deuxième
Congress of Negro Writers and Artists, Rome, 26 March–1st April 1959­(Paris:­Présence­
Africaine),­456.

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The Universalizing visions of caTholicism,

Unesco, and négriTUde

Diop­laments­the­difficulty­of­cultivating­interfaith­understanding,­but­
he­points­to­the­work­of­the­Second­Vatican­Council­(1962–65)­as­a­
promising­example­of­how­such­spiritual­gridlock­might­be­overcome.­
The­brevity­of­Diop’s­gesture­to­the­council,­often­nicknamed­Vatican­II,­
belies­the­two­preceding­decades­of­active­contemplation­that­informed­
this­succinct­but­bold­suggestion­that­Négritude­and­papal­policy­could­
be­aligned­in­their­efforts­to­establish­peaceful­international­relations.­

While­living­in­Paris,­Diop­gradually­deepened­his­relationship­­

to­Catholicism­through­a­friendship­with­the­French­theologian­
Emmanuel­Mounier,­culminating,­in­1944,­in­Diop’s­baptism­into­­
the­church.14­Mounier­introduced­Diop­to­the­Personalist­movement,­
an­approach­to­Catholicism­devoted­to­the­importance­and­dignity­of­­
the­human­subject.­Diop­believed­that­under­the­correct­leadership,­the­
Catholic­church­could­advance­the­objectives­that­he­most­valued:­the­
healing­of­a­world­in­which­colonialism­and­racism­had­systemically­
devalued­human­life­and­thereby­disrespected­the­human­spirit.­Diop’s­
aspirations­for­the­church,­however,­were­tempered­by­a­longstanding­
frustration­with­its­failure­to­better­serve­African­populations.­While­
Catholic­leaders­professed­to­serve­all­of­humankind,­Diop­believed­that­
the­implicit­premise­of­the­church’s­claim­to­universal­appeal­was­the­
colonialist­belief­that­European­culture­could,­and­should,­be­applied­
anywhere­in­the­world.­

Diop’s­hopes­were­somewhat­restored­when,­in­an­unexpected­
announcement­in­1959,­Pope­John­XXIII­declared­the­intention­to­con-
vene­Vatican­II.­The­council­was­organized­in­part­to­facilitate­unity­
between­different­Christian­denominations,­and­it­included­an­interna-
tional­array­of­participants,­paying­considerably­more­attention­to­non-
European­practices­than­had­the­previous­council,­held­nearly­one­
century­earlier.­Diop­capitalized­upon­Vatican­II­as­an­opportunity­to­
demand­that­the­church­reform­its­relationship­to­African­Catholics.­­
To­this­end,­Diop­appeared­as­a­guest­on­Vatican­Radio­programming,­
and­in­1962­he­organized­a­two-day­meeting­of­the­Society­of­African­
Culture,­a­group­formed­at­the­First­Congress­of­Black­Writers­and­
Artists,­in­an­effort­to­convey­“the­presence­and­the­expression­of­

14­

Foster­discusses­Diop’s­increasing­investment­in­Catholicism­in­chapter­2­of­Foster,­African
Catholic: Decolonization and the Transformation of the Church.

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African­Personhood­in­Catholic­Life.”15­Diop­reportedly­compared­the­
efforts­of­African­Catholics­to­those­of­Négritude­literary­leaders,­in­­
that­both­were­trying­to­bring­African­perspectives­before­a­Western­
audience.

In­addition­to­Diop,­Senghor­too­identified­as­Catholic,­as­did­other­

leaders­involved­with­the­Festival.­One­of­these­was­Father­Engelbert­
Mveng,­a­Cameroonian­priest­who­played­a­major­role­in­organizing­
L’Art­Nègre:­Sources,­Évolution,­Expansion,­the­event’s­largest­art­exhi-
bition.­Catholicism­was­also­the­faith­of­significant­independence-era­
leaders­such­as­Félix­Houphouët-Boigny,­the­inaugural­president­of­
independent­Côte­d’Ivoire.­Despite­the­religion’s­influence­upon­the­
era’s­political­and­cultural­leaders,­the­philosophical­tenets­underlying­
1960s­Black­internationalist­thought­and­African­Catholicism­have­long­
been­discussed­separately­from­one­another,­rather­than­in­dialogue.­
Diop’s­passing­but­unusually­direct­alignment­of­their­missions­in­“Art­
and­Peace”­testifies­to­the­necessity­for­contemporary­scholars­to­con-
sider­their­interrelationship,­an­effort­initiated­in­the­recent­work­of­his-
torian­Elizabeth­Foster.16­

­“Art­and­Peace”­similarly­prompts­contemporary­readers­to­con-
sider­the­ways­in­which­the­Festival­and­its­underlying­mission­relate­to­
the­mid-­to­late-20th-century­cultural­programs­of­UNESCO.­Diop­
praises­UNESCO­in­his­discussion­of­“moral­sensibility,”­which­the­
author­defines­as­the­values­instilled­by­the­norms­and­customs­of­one’s­
local­community.­On­one­level,­this­comment­makes­an­appreciative­
nod­to­an­organization­that­provided­significant­support­to­the­Festival;­
on­another,­it­calls­attention­to­similarities­in­the­objectives­and­world-
views­espoused­by­both­Négritude­leaders­and­the­UN­organization.­

Founded­in­the­wake­of­the­Second­World­War­to­facilitate­interna-

tional­cooperation­on­educational,­scientific,­and­cultural­initiatives,­
UNESCO­had­in­fact­been­one­of­the­earliest­organizations­Diop­con-
tacted­in­his­efforts­to­make­the­Festival­a­reality.17­He­eventually­suc-
ceeded­in­enlisting­the­organization’s­support,­which­was­provided­in­
the­form­of­the­Musée­Dynamique­(Dynamic­Museum),­a­state-of-the-
art­museum­designed­by­Jean­Gabus,­a­Swiss­curator­and­ethnographer­
who­provided­curatorial­guidance­in­the­years­following­the­museum’s­

15­
16­
17­

Ibid.,­92–93.
Ibid..
Alioune­Diop,­“Alioune­Diop­to­Vittorino­Veronese,­November­16,­1960”­(UNESCO­
Archives).

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opening.­Inaugurated­at­the­Festival,­the­museum­hosted­L’Art­Nègre,
the­largest­exhibition­of­African­art­that­had­ever­appeared­on­the­conti-
nent­itself.­The­display­included­works­loaned­from­a­variety­of­sources,­
ranging­from­Bamum­chefferies­to­the­Metropolitan­Museum­of­Art.

Literature­published­on­behalf­of­UNESCO­defined­museums­as­
being­particularly­effective­agents­for­“spreading­knowledge­and­pro-
moting­international­understanding­as­a­positive­contribution­to­
peace.”18­A­testament­to­this­belief,­UNESCO­founded­the­bilingual­
(French­and­English)­journal­Museum­in­1948­to­foster­the­exchange­of­
ideas­between­museum­professionals­around­the­world,­and­in­1953,­an­
international­panel­of­experts­working­on­behalf­of­UNESCO­voted­to­
fund­an­“International­Campaign­for­Museums.”19­The­impact­of­this­
campaign­upon­launching­in­1956­was­far-reaching­and­varied:­it­insti-
gated­the­opening­of­new­buildings­and­galleries­and­supported­related­
conferences­and­teaching­initiatives­in­countries­on­all­sides­of­the­Cold­
War­and­on­every­continent­aside­from­Antarctica.20­­

Collaborating­with­UNESCO,­Diop­found­like-minded­colleagues­

on­the­topic­of­intercultural­exchange.­For­example,­Gabus,­the­
UNESCO-affiliated­museum­designer­and­curatorial­consultant­for­­
the­Musée­Dynamique,­believed­that­the­“only­true­justification­of­the­
museum’s­activities”­was­“to­place­humans­in­contact­with­one­another,”­
allowing­viewers­to­“arrive­at­the­summits­of­a­common­humanity.”21­
The­Musée­Dynamique­was­understood­by­both­Négritude­leaders­and­
the­UN­organization­to­serve­a­distinct­but­overlapping­humanistic­
vision,­participating­in­a­broader­movement­to­frame­international­cul-
tural­gatherings­as­essential­to­world­peace.

reconciling négriTUde and cUlTUral gloBalizaTion

Diop­devotes­the­latter­half­of­his­essay­to­considering­what­the­implica-
tions­of­such­universalizing­approaches­might­be­for­contemporary­
African­artists.­Though­he­describes­the­globalization­of­the­art­world­to­
be­an­indispensable­step­in­pursuing­lasting­peace,­he­also­discusses­
the­possible­side­effects­that­such­a­process­might­impose­on­African­
artists­and­audiences.­Would­not­a­value­system­that­prioritized­the­cul-

“Museum­and­Museums,”­Museum­I,­no.­1­(1948).

18­
19­ André­Leveillé,­“International­Campaign­for­Museums,”­Museum­IX­(1956).
20­ Museum­XI­(1958).
21­

Jean­Gabus,­“Principes­Esthétiques­Et­Préparation­Des­Expositions­Didactiques,”­­
Museum­XVIII­(1965):­16.

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tivation­of­intercultural­empathy­also­motivate­an­artist­to­consider­the­
interests­of­foreign­audiences­before­local­ones?­By­extension,­might­the­
globalization­of­art’s­marketplaces­and­exhibition­spaces­incentivize­the­
eventual­alienation­of­the­African­artist­from­the­continent’s­people?­
What­could­be­done­to­ensure­that­the­international­visibility­and­mobil-
ity­of­African­artists­destabilized,­rather­than­reinforced,­the­hegemony­
of­a­Euro-North-American­critical­apparatus?

Gesturing­to­these­concerns,­Diop­ultimately­concludes­that­events­
like­the­Festival­would­sufficiently­strengthen­networks­between­artists­
and­audiences­of­African­descent,­supporting­both­international­visibil-
ity­and­community­vitality.­The­Festival­did­succeed­in­bringing­an­
unprecedented­breadth­of­artists,­performers,­and­writers­from­
throughout­Africa­and­its­diasporas­into­contact­with­one­another.­At­
the­same­time,­however,­the­event­and­its­organizers­were­widely­criti-
cized­for­neglecting­local­interests­in­their­pursuit­of­international­rec-
ognition.­From­Lagos­to­New­York,­press­coverage­of­the­Festival­noted­
the­contrast­of­its­grand­efforts­to­impress­visitors­alongside­the­wide-
spread­impoverishment­of­the­Dakar­populace.22­Relatedly,­while­
Senegalese­attendance­at­the­Festival’s­art­exhibitions­reportedly­
included­only­a­limited­social­elite,­a­robust­international­press­corps­
covered­the­exhibitions,­and­through­their­critical­assessments,­journal-
ists­sometimes­perpetuated­discriminatory­ideas­about­the­continent’s­
contemporary­artists.23­For­example,­the­Washington Post’s­correspon-
dent­to­the­Festival­panned­Tendences­et­Confrontations,­an­exhibition­
of­work­by­contemporary­artists­of­African­descent,­deeming­the­display­
subpar;­he­claimed­this­fate­was­inevitable­because­“painting­was­alien­
to­black­civilization.”24­If­the­Festival­fulfilled­aspects­of­Diop’s­optimis-
tic­vision,­it­also­exemplified­some­of­the­obstacles­to­the­agency­of­
African­artists­and­audiences­that­could­arise­in­international­arts­are-
nas,­even­those­based­on­the­continent­itself.

Aspects­of­Diop’s­discussion­are­glaringly­dated,­including­the­neat­

22­

23­

Lloyd­Garrison,­“Senegal­Returns­to­Reality’s­Grip,”­The New York Times,­May­9,­1966;­
Onuora­Nzekwu,­“Nigeria,­Negritude­and­the­World­Festival­of­Negro­Arts,”­Nigeria Today
1966.
Both­Tripet­and­Tassart­reported­scarce­attendance­by­Senegalese­viewers­at­the­Festival’s­
exhibitions.­Maurice­Tassart,­“À­Dakar,­Le­Festival­Mondial­Des­Arts­Nègres­(Opération­
Déficitaire­.­.­.­Mais­Payant),”­Carrefour­­(1966);­Lison­Tripet,­“Le­Sens­Et­La­Portée­Du­
Premier­Festival­Mondial­Des­Arts­Nègres,”­Construire,­June­1,­1966.­

24­ Donald­H.­Louchheim,­“African­Artists­Disappoint­Viewer­at­World­Festival­of­Negro­Arts,”­

The Washington Post,­April­9,­1966.

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distinction­he­assumes­between­“modern”­and­“traditional”­art,­and­
most­troublingly,­his­call­for­artists­to­“bring­the­African­people­up-to-
date­with­the­modern­world.”­But­“Art­and­Peace”­speaks­to­present-day­
concerns­as­it­lays­some­of­the­coordinates­structuring­ethical­debates­
on­today’s­biennials­and­art­fairs.­Diop’s­text­offers­a­precursor­to­polar-
izing­analyses­of­the­increasing­centrality­of­such­international­exhibi-
tions­to­African­artists’­careers,­a­phenomenon­alternatively­celebrated­
as­liberatory­(as­in­The Global Contemporary and the Rise of New Art
Worlds,­2013)­and­maligned­as­neocolonial­(as­in­The Culture Game,­
2004).25­In­Dakar,­discussions­regarding­the­value­of­a­biennial­devoted­
to­works­by­African­artists­re-emerge­with­each­iteration­of­the­Dak’art­
Biennale,­the­contemporary­inheritor­of­the­Festival’s­legacy.26­

“Art­and­Peace”­makes­visible­some­of­the­philosophical­and­politi-

cal­beliefs­that­informed­the­Festival’s­understanding­of­the­interna-
tional­exhibition.­Interpolating­Vatican­II­and­UNESCO­initiatives,­and­
grounded­in­the­author’s­career-long­commitment­to­Négritude­theory,­
the­essay­reveals­the­intertwined­international­peacemaking­efforts­
through­which­Diop­made­sense­of­the­ever-globalizing­art­world­sur-
rounding­him.­Before­all­else,­however,­the­essay­enlists­the­cultural­
achievements­of­mankind­in­the­pursuit­of­lasting­international­har-
mony.­It­is­grounded­in­the­assertion­that­peace­exceeds­ceasefire,­resid-
ing­in­a­dimension­of­one’s­subjectivity­to­which­the­arts­have­privileged­
access.

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25­ Hans­Belting,­Andrea­Buddensieg,­and­Peter­Weibel,­The Global Contemporary and the Rise

26­

of New Art Worlds­(Cambridge,­MA:­MIT­Press,­2013);­Oguibe,­The Culture Game.­
For­example,­see­Araeen,­“Dak’art­1992–2002:­The­Problems­of­Representation,­
Contextualization,­and­Critical­Evaluation­in­Contemporary­African­Art­as­Presented­by­the­
Dakar­Bienniale.”

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