Victor Lazzarini, Joseph Timoney, 和 - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

Victor Lazzarini, Joseph Timoney, 和
Thomas Lysaght
An Grúpa Theicneolaíocht Fuaime agus Ceoil
Dhigitigh
(Sound and Digital Music Technology Group)
National University of Ireland, Maynooth
Maynooth, 钴. Kildare, 爱尔兰
Victor.Lazzarini@nuim.ie
{JTimoney, TLysaght}@cs.nuim.ie

The Generation of Natural-
Synthetic Spectra by
Means of Adaptive
Frequency Modulation

Frequency- modulation (FM) synthesis is widely
known as a computationally efﬁ cient method for
synthesizing musically interesting timbres. 如何-
曾经, it has suffered from neglect owing to the
difﬁ culty in creating natural- sounding spectra and
mapping gestural input to synthesis parameters.
最近, a revival has occurred with the advent of
adaptive audio- processing methods, and this work
proposes a technique called adaptive FM synthesis.
This article derives two novel ways by which an
arbitrary input signal can be used to modulate a
carrier. We show how phase modulation (下午) 能
be achieved ﬁ rst by using delay lines and then by
heterodyning. By applying these techniques to
真实的- world signals, it is possible to generate transi-
tions between natural- sounding and synthesizer-
like sounds. Examples are provided of the spectral
consequences of adaptive FM synthesis using inputs
of various acoustic instruments and a voice. 一个
assessment of the timbral quality of synthesized
sounds demonstrates its effectiveness.

Background

Frequency modulation (FM), introduced by John
Chowning in his seminal article on the technique
(Chowning 1973), is one of the most important
classic methods of synthesis. It has proved very
useful as an economical means of generating time-
varying complex spectra. 为此原因, 它是
widely adopted at a time when computational speed
was a determining factor in the choice of signal-
processing algorithms. 然而, the method always
made it difﬁ cult for composers to produce natural-
sounding spectral evolutions. This in some cases
was caused by the lack of ﬁ ne gestural control over

电脑音乐杂志, 32:2, PP. 9–22, 夏天 2008
© 2008 麻省理工学院.

the sound and in others by the synthetic- sounding
quality of the generated spectra. These shortcom-
ings spurred software and hardware designers to
come up with new solutions for instrument control
and improvements to the basic FM method (Pala-
min, Palamin, and Ronveaux 1988; Tan and Gan
1993; 霍纳 1996). 尽管如此, these develop-
ments failed to stem the decline in the technique’s
use as increasingly more powerful hardware became
可用的.

Some of the limitations of gestural controllers

and of synthetic sound in FM can be addressed
together by the use of adaptive techniques, 哪个
form an important subset of musical signal-
processing techniques (Verfaille and Arﬁ b 2002;
Verfaille, Zölzer, and Arﬁ b 2006). A key aspect of
their usefulness in music composition and perfor-
mance is that they provide a means to retain signiﬁ –
cant gestural information contained in the original
signal. 所以, these techniques seem to be well
suited to help develop more natural- sounding forms
of FM synthesis. With them, it might be possible to
obtain results that share much of the liveliness
perceived in musical signals of instrumental origin.
The traditional approach has been to treat synthe-

sis and control parameters separately, using some
means of mapping to control the process (Miranda
and Wanderley 2006; Wanderley and Depalle 2004).
This ultimately can lead to a split between gesture
and sonic result, especially in the case of FM, 在哪里
the mapping is often not clear or too coarsely de-
ﬁ ned. 或者, one can approach the problem
from an adaptive point of view, whereby a signal is
both the source of control information (extracted
from it through different analysis processes) 和
input to the synthesis algorithm. Some pioneering
works in the area have proposed interesting appli-
cations of this principle in what has been called
声音的- signal driven sound synthesis (Poepel 2004;
Poepel and Dannenberg 2005).

Lazzarini et al.

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In the speciﬁ c case of FM synthesis, 有可能的
to use an arbitrary input signal in two ways, 任何一个
as a modulator or as a carrier. In the former case,
this signal is used to modulate the frequency of one
or more oscillators. When the input is anything but
a sinusoidal wave, this arrangement produces what
we normally describe as complex FM (Schottstaedt
1977). Although this setup, proposed by Poepel and
丹能伯格 (2005), provides a richer means of
gestural control over the process, it does not seem
to capture well the original spectral characteristics
of interesting input sounds (such as the ones origi-
nating from instrumental sources). The spectral
evolutions allowed by the method still resemble the
more synthetic results typical of standard FM
synthesis, because the carrier is still a sine wave
振荡器. If we want to allow as much of the tim-
bral qualities of the input sound to affect the gener-
ated sound, we will get better results using the
input as a carrier signal.

Considering non- sinusoidal inputs, this case is

similar to multiple- carrier FM (Dodge and Jerse
1985). The techniques described in this article
implement this arrangement. Standard multiple-
carrier FM is deﬁ ned by a single modulator being
used to vary the frequency of several sinusoidal
carriers. It has proved useful in a variety of applica-
系统蒸发散, including vocal synthesis (Chowning 1989)
and instrumental emulation via spectral matching
(霍纳, Beauchamp, and Hakken 1993). By applying
the technique to real- world signals, it is possible to
generate transitions between natural- sounding and
synthesizer- like sounds. Depending on the levels of
modulation, we are able to reveal more or less of the
original timbral qualities of the input. This is the
basis for our technique of adaptive FM synthesis, 或者
AdFM (Lazzarini, Timoney, and Lysaght 2007).

To use an arbitrary input as a carrier, 我们必须
develop some means of modulating the frequency
(或者, to be more precise, the phase) of that signal.
This is required because we no longer use an oscilla-
tor to produce the sound, so we have no implicit
frequency control of the arbitrary signal. 这
following section addresses two different methods
of achieving this. We then discuss the implications
of using complex signals as carriers and details of
parameter extraction.

The Technique

The synthesis technique discussed here is based on
two elements: some means of phase modulation of
an input signal; and the use of an arbitrary, mono-
phonic, pitched or quasi- pitched input to which
parameter estimation will be applied. The phase
modulation effect can be achieved by two basic
方法: through the use of a variable delay line or
by heterodyning.

Delay- Line Based Phase Modulation

A well- known side- effect of variable delays is the
phase modulation of the delay- line input (Dilsch
and Zölzer 1999). This is the basis for all classic
variable- delay effects such as ﬂ anging, chorusing,
pitch shifting, and vibrato. The principle has also
been used in audio- rate modulation of waveguide
型号 (Van Duyne and Smith 1992). It is thus
possible to model simple (sinusoidal) 声音的- 速度
phase modulation using a delay- line with a suitable
modulating function (见图 1).

We now consider the case where the input to the

delay line is a sinusoidal signal of frequency fc:

(1)

X(t) = sin(2(西德:2)fct)
When the modulating source is s(t) = dmaxD(t),
where D(t) ∈{0 . . . 1} is an arbitrary function, and dmax
is the maximum delay, the delay- line phase modu-
lation of Equation 1 can be deﬁ ned (with ω = 2πfc) 作为
y(t) = sin((西德:3)[t − dmaxD(t)])

(2)

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The instantaneous radian frequency ω

我(t) of such a

phase- modulated signal can be estimated from the
derivative of the phase angle θ(t):

(西德:3)

我(t) =

∂(西德:4)(t)
∂t

∂(西德:3)[t − dmaxD(t)]
∂t

= (西德:3) -

∂D(t)
∂t

dmax

(西德:3)

(3)

and the instantaneous frequency IF(t) in Hz can be
deﬁ ned as

I F(t) = fc

∂D(t)
∂t

dmax

(4)

电脑音乐杂志

数字 1. Delay- line based
phase modulation.

Considering the case where the modulating signal
is a scaled raised cosine (IE。, a periodically repeating
Hanning window), 我们有

D(t) = 0.5cos(2(西德:2)fmt) + 0.5

(5)

和, by substituting D(t) in Equation 4, IF(t) is now

IF(t) = (西德:2)fm sin(2(西德:2)fmt)dmaxfc

+ 足球俱乐部

(6)

which characterizes the instantaneous frequency in
sinusoidal phase modulation. In such an arrange-
蒙特, the sinusoidal term in Equation 6 is known
as the frequency deviation, whose maximum
absolute value DEVmax is

DEVmax

= (西德:5)d × (西德:2)fmfc

(7)

with Δ d = dmax – dmin.

现在, turning to FM theory, we characterize the
index of modulation I as the ratio of the maximum
deviation and the modulation frequency:

I = DEVmax
fm

(西德:5)d(西德:2)fmfc
fm

= (西德:5)d(西德:2)足球俱乐部

(8)

The Δ d that should apply as the amplitude of our

sinusoidal modulating signal can now be put in
terms of the index of modulation

y(t) = J 0(我)罪((西德:3)

ct)+

我 +1
∑
k =1

J k(我)罪((西德:3)

ct + k(西德:3)

mt)+ J − k(我)罪((西德:3)

ct − k(西德:3)

mt)

(11)

where ω
of the ﬁ rst kind of order k, 和

c = 2πfc, ω

m = 2πfm, Jk(我) are Bessel functions

J − k(我) = (−1)kJ k(我)

(12)

Note that to match the phases as closely as pos-
sible to Equation 11, we require an offset of π / 2 + 2我
in the input sinusoid and π / 2 in the modulator (两个都
in relation to cosine phase). Because the carrier
phase depends on the index of modulation in gen-
埃拉尔, we only rarely achieve an exact match. 因此,
in delay- line phase modulation, we need not be too
concerned with phase offsets.

Interestingly enough, in the delay- line formula-
tion of FM / 下午, the index of modulation for a given
variable delay- width is proportional to the carrier-
signal frequency (as seen in Equation 9). 这
situation does not arise in classic FM. 还, 什么时候
considering the width of variable delay for a given
value of I, we see that it gets smaller as the frequency
rises. In a digital system, for I = 1, the width will be
less than one sample at the Nyquist frequency.

Phase Modulation Through Heterodyning

The second method proposed here is based on a
simple re- working of the PM formula. We begin by
proposing the following synthetic signal, where I is
the index of modulation and ω
m is the radian modu-
lation frequency (ω

m = 2πfm):
y(t) = x(t)因斯(I sin((西德:3)

mt))

(13)

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(西德:5)d = I
(西德:2)足球俱乐部

and the modulating signal is now

(9)

Using a sinusoid described in Equation 1 as our input
signal x(t), we obtain, by manipulating the expres-
锡安, the following combination of PM signals:

d(t) = I
(西德:2)足球俱乐部

0.5因斯(2(西德:2)fmt) + 0.5

⎦

(10)

The resulting spectrum according to FM theory is
dependent on the values of both I and the carrier- 到-
modulator (C:米) frequency ratio:

y(t) = sin((西德:3)

ct)因斯(I sin((西德:3)
ct + I sin((西德:3)
C,(西德:3)

mt))
mt)) + 罪((西德:3)
C,-(西德:3)

米, 我,t) + 下午((西德:3)

= 0.5[罪((西德:3)

= 0.5[下午((西德:3)

ct − I sin((西德:3)
米, 我,t)]

mt))]

(14)

where the PM signal is deﬁ ned as

Lazzarini et al.

⎡
⎣
⎤

下午(C,米,我,t) = sin(ct + I sin(mt))

(15)

By inspecting Equation 11 , it is clear that this
formulation, based on the mixing of two PM sig-
nals, will lead to the cancellation of certain compo-
nents in the output signal, namely the ones where k
is odd (called in FM theory the odd sidebands).

The signiﬁ cance of this and the previous imple-

mentations of PM can be fully appreciated only
once we move from using sinusoidal inputs to
arbitrary signals. This will allow us to develop the
synthesis designs we propose in this work.

Using Arbitrary Input Signals

We will now examine the results of applying
arbitrary input signals to both formulations just
描述的, beginning with the delay- line based PM.
In Equation 11, we see the ordinary spectrum of
simple FM. 然而, for our present purposes, 我们
will assume the input x(t) to be a complex arbitrary
signal made up of N sinusoidal partials of ampli-
tudes an , radian frequencies ω
n,
originating, 例如, from instrumental sources:

n, and phase offsets φ

X(t) =

N −1
∑
n= 0

an sin((西德:3)

恩特 + (西德:6)

(16)

The resulting phase- modulated output is equiva-
lent to what is normally called multiple- carrier FM
synthesis, because the carrier signal is now com-
丛. This output y(t) can be described as

y(t) =

N −1
∑
n= 0

an sin((西德:3)

恩特 + In sin((西德:3)

mt) + (西德:6)

(17)

where ω
m is the modulation frequency and In is the
index of modulation for each partial. 根据
方程 11, this would be equivalent to the follow-
ing signal:

在

= (西德:5)d(西德:2)fn

= I
(西德:2)足球俱乐部

(西德:2)fn

= I

fn
足球俱乐部

(19)

再次, we see here that the effect of the relation-
ship between the index of modulation and the carrier
frequency is that higher- frequency partials will be
modulated more intensely than lower ones. Depend-
ing on the bandwidth and richness of the input sig-
纳尔, it is quite easy to generate very complex spectra,
which might be objectionable in some cases. 这
increase in brightness has also been observed in
other applications of audio- rate mod ulation of delay
线 (Välimäki, Tolonen, and Karjalainen 1998;
Tolonen, Välimäki, and Karjalainen 2000).

Turning now to the second technique introduced
herein, we will have a signiﬁ cantly different output,
described by

y(t) = 0.5

N −1
∑
n= 0

an sin((西德:3)

恩特 + I sin((西德:3)

mt) + (西德:6)

N −1
∑
n= 0

an sin((西德:3)

恩特 + I sin(-(西德:3)

mt) + (西德:6)

(20)

The most important differences between the spec-
trum of this signal and that described by Equation
18 are that odd sidebands are now canceled, 和
index of modulation I is now constant across the
modulated carrier components. Whereas the former
is responsible for an overall timbral difference
between the two spectra, the latter is responsible for
a more controlled and subtle handling of high
频率.

Another key aspect of the proposed methods is

that the c:m ratio parameter can also be taken
advantage of by estimating the fundamental fre-
quency of the input signal (assumed to be mono-
phonic). 在这种情况下, a variety of different spectral
combinations can be produced, from inharmonic to
harmonic and quasi- harmonic.

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y(t) =

N −1
∑
n= 0

一个

我 +1
∑
k =1

J 0(在)罪((西德:3)

J k(在)罪((西德:3)
J − k(在)罪((西德:3)

恩特 + (西德:6)
恩特 + k(西德:3)
nt − k(西德:3)

n) +
mt + (西德:6)
mt + (西德:6)

n) +

The different indices of modulation for each compo-
nent of the carrier signal can be estimated by the
following relationship, derived from Equation 9:

Fundamental Frequency Estimation

(18)

To allow for a full control of c:m ratio and modula-
tion index, it is necessary to estimate the funda-
mental frequency of the carrier signal. That will
allow the modulator signal frequency and ampli-
tude to be set according to Equation 10. This can be

电脑音乐杂志

⎡
⎣
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎢
⎤
⎦
⎥
⎥
⎥
⎥

achieved with the use of a pitch tracker, 这是一个
standard component of many modern music
signal- processing systems. For the current imple-
心理状态, a spectral- analysis pitch- 追踪
method was devised, based on an algorithm by
Puckette, Apel, and Ziccarelli (1998) and Puckette
和布朗 (1998), that provides ﬁ ne accuracy of
基本的- frequency estimation. In addition to
tracking the pitch, it is also useful (but not essen-
提尔) to obtain the amplitude of the input signal,
which can be used in certain applications to scale
the index of modulation. This is also provided by
our parameter- estimation method.

Signal Bandwidth

Although the spectrum of FM is, in practical terms,
乐队- limited, it is capable of producing very high
频率, as seen in Equations 11 和 18. 和
digital signals, this can lead to aliasing problems if
the bandwidth of the signal exceeds the Nyquist
频率. The fact that in the delay- based formula-
tion the index of modulation increases with fre-
quency for a given Δ d (方程 19) is obviously
problematic. 然而, 在实践中, the kind of input
signals we will be employing generally exhibit a
spectral envelope that decays with frequency. 在
这个案例, objectionable aliasing problems might be
greatly minimized, given that an in Equation 18 为了
higher values of n will be close to zero. 当然, 如果
our input contains much energy in the higher end of
the spectrum, such as for instance an impulse train,
then aliasing will surely occur.

The simplest solution for such problematic signals

is to impose a decaying spectral envelope using a
ﬁ l ter. This will have the obvious side- effect of modi-
fying the timbre of the input signal. 其他, 更多的
computationally costly, solution is to oversample
the input signal. This would either remove the
aliased signals or place them at an inaudible range.

Implementation

We now present a reference implementation of
AdFM using both methods of phase modulation

数字 2. Delay- line based
AdFM design: (A) original;
(乙) with the optional low-
pass ﬁ lter.

(A)

(乙)

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described herein. These two instrument designs can
serve as the basis for further software- or hardware-
based implementations. The basic ﬂ ow chart of the
delay- based PM instrument is shown in Figure 2a.
There are three basic components: a pitch tracker, A
modulating source (a table- lookup oscillator), and a
variable delay line with interpolated readout. 每个
of these components is found in modern music
signal- processing systems, so the technique is
highly portable. The implementation discussed here
uses Csound 5 (fﬁ tch 2005) as the synthesis engine,
but similar instruments can be developed under
other musical signal- processing environments,

Lazzarini et al.

数字 3. Delay- 基于
AdFM code.

数字 4. The heterodyning
AdFM design.

数字 5. Heterodyning
AdFM Csound code.

数字 4

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such as the SndObj library and PySndObj (Lazza-
rini 2000, 2007). It is important to note that this
design can be used either for real- time or off- 线
applications. 此外, plug- ins can be easily
developed from it using csLadspa (Lazzarini and
Walsh 2007).

The equivalent Csound 5 code for the ﬂ owchart

design in Figure 2, which implements the delay-
based version, is shown in Figure 3. The heterodyn-
ing PM design is simpler, based on a more or less
straight translation of the formula in Equation 13.
Its ﬂ owchart is shown in Figure 4 and the corre-
sponding Csound code in Figure 5.

Both implementations use a spectral- 分析

沥青- tracking opcode (ptrack) written by the
authors and linear interpolation oscillators to
generate the modulation signal. The DFM opcode
uses a cubic- interpolation variable delay line
(Laakso et al. 1996). Owing to the use of cubic
interpolation, the minimum delay is set to two

数字 5

samples to avoid errors in the circular- buffer
readout.

A number of variations can be made to the basic

设计. 例如, the amplitude of the signal,
which is produced together with the pitch- 追踪
信息, can be used to scale the index of
modulation. This can be used to generate typical

电脑音乐杂志

数字 6. Steady- state spec-
trum of a ﬂ ute playing C4.

brass- like synthesizer tones (Risset 1969), 哪里的
brightness of the synthetic output is linked to the
amplitude evolution of the input sound. Alterna-
主动地, it can be used to determine the c:m ratio.
Depending on the characteristics of the input

signal, it might be useful to include a low- pass ﬁ lter
before the signal is sent to the AdFM processors,
especially in the delay- 基于- version, 如图所示
Figure 2b. The cutoff frequency of the low- pass
ﬁ lter can also be controlled by the estimated input
振幅. As discussed earlier, this will reduce
aliasing as well as overall brightness, both of which
are sometimes a downside of FM synthesis.

Examples and Discussion

Four different types of carrier signals were chosen as
a way of examining the qualities of the AdFM
synthetic signal using both methods described in
this article. A ﬂ ute input with its spectral energy
concentrated in the lower harmonics is a prime
candidate for experimentation. The clarinet was
chosen for its basic quality of having more promi-
nent odd harmonics. 最后, the piano and voice
were used as a means of exploring the possibilities
of synthesizing different types of harmonic and
inharmonic spectra by the use of various c:m ratios.

The sound examples discussed here will be found
on the annual Computer Music Journal DVD (成为
released with the Winter 2008 问题).

Flute Input

The original steady- state ﬂ ute spectrum, 有效地
with I = 0, is shown in Figure 6. As clearly seen in
that ﬁ gure, it features quite prominent lower har-
monics. Using delay- line AdFM and applying an
index of modulation of 0.3 on a 1:1 C:m conﬁ gura-
的, we can start enriching the spectrum with
higher harmonics (见图 7). At these low values
of I, there is already a considerable addition of com-
ponents between 5 和 10 千赫. The overall spectral
envelope still preserves its original decaying shape.

Using the delay line method with higher values of

我, we can see a dramatic change in the timbral
characteristics of the original ﬂ ute sound. 数字 8
shows the resulting spectrum, now with I = 1.5.
这里, we can see that components are now spread to
the entire frequency range. The original decaying
spectral envelope is distorted into a much more
gradual shape, and the difference between the
loudest and the softest harmonic is only about 30
分贝. The resulting sound can been described as
“string- 喜欢,” and the transition between the ﬂ ute

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数字 7. AdFM spectrum
using a ﬂ ute C4 signal as
carrier with c:m = 1 和
I = 0.3.

数字 8. AdFM spectrum
using same input as Figure
3, but now with I = 1.5.

数字 7

数字 8

and AdFM spectra is capable of providing interest-
ing possibilities for musical expression. 还, 这是
important to note that important gestural charac-
teristics of the original sound, such as pitch ﬂ uctua-
系统蒸发散, 颤音, 和发音, are preserved in the
synthetic output.

As I gets higher, the spectrum gets even brighter,

but the problems with aliasing start to become
signiﬁ cant. To prevent this and also to allow for a
different spectral envelope, an optional low- pass
ﬁ ltering of the input signal is suggested. 在那里面
案件, the ﬁ lter is inserted in the signal path at the

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数字 9. Heterodyning
AdFM synthesis using a
ﬂ ute input with I = 5 和
C:m = 1.

delay- line input. A Butterworth low- pass ﬁ lter with
a cutoff frequency between 1,000 和 5,000 Hz has
proven useful. It is possible to couple the cutoff
frequency with I, so that for higher values of that
parameter, more ﬁ ltering is applied.

The addition of higher harmonics is signiﬁ cantly
reduced in the heterodyning AdFM method. 我们可以
see in Figure 9 how much more attenuated the top
end of the spectrum is in comparison to the pre-
vious technique. This in some cases might be
advantageous; 然而, the effect of the technique
is subtler, resulting in a transition between natural-
sounding and synthesizer- like spectra that is less
dramatic.

tially. In delay- line AdFM with I = 1.5, 有可能的
to see that there is very little difference between the
strengths of odd and even components (见图 11).
此外, 更高- order harmonics become more
展示, and the spectral envelope levels out, owing
to the well- known spread of energy that is charac-
teristic of FM synthesis.

The heterodyning method also provides similar
transformations, although again with more subtle
高的- frequency results, and still retaining some of
the odd / even balance of the input. 数字 12 demon-
strates that the resulting spectrum features a decay-
ing envelope, in contrast to the previous example
(见图 11), which is much ﬂ atter.

Clarinet Input

Piano Input

Our second experiment used a clarinet signal as a
carrier wave for AdFM. The clarinet exhibits a
稳定的- state spectrum in which the lower- 命令
even harmonics are signiﬁ cantly less energetic than
their odd neighbors (见图 10). 因此, 这
多种的- carrier- like characteristic of AdFM helps
generate quite a change in the spectra of that
instrument.

As the index of modulation increases, the balance

between odd an even harmonics changes substan-

In the previous examples, we have kept the ratio
between the modulating frequency and carrier fun-
damental at unity. 然而, as we know from FM
理论, a range of different spectra is possible if we
use different ratios. It is possible to create a range of
effects that range from changing the fundamental of
the sound to transforming a harmonic spectrum
into an inharmonic one. We took a piano C2 signal
as our carrier and then tuned our modulator to 1.41
times that frequency. The original piano spectrum

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数字 10. Detail of
稳定的- state spectrum of
clarinet C3. Note the
higher relative strength of
降低- order odd harmonics
versus even ones.

数字 11. Detail of AdFM
spectrum using a clarinet
C3 signal as carrier with
C:m = 1 and I = 1.5. Odd
and even harmonics now
have comparable strengths.

数字 10

数字 11

is shown in Figure 13, where we can clearly see its
harmonics.

The resulting delay- line AdFM spectrum with
I = 0.15 is shown in Figure 14. This particular ratio
creates a great number of components whose rela-
tionship implies a very low fundamental, 因此

generating what is perceived as an inharmonic
光谱. 随着 1:1 比率, the sums and differ-
ences between fc and fm created components whose
frequencies were mostly coincident. 这里, a variety
of discrete components will be generated, 创造
the denser spectrum seen in Figure 14. The AdFM

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数字 12. Steady- 状态
spectrum of clarinet- 输入
heterodyning AdFM, 和
I = 5 and c:m = 1.

数字 13. Spectrogram of a
piano C2 tone, showing its
ﬁ rst harmonics in the
0–1.2 kHz range.

数字 14. Spectrogram of
an AdFM sound using a
piano C2 signal as carrier,
with c:m = 1:1.41 and I =
0.15, showing the 0–1.2
kHz range. The resulting

inharmonic spectrum,
with a large number of
成分, is clearly
seen in comparison with
数字 13.

数字 12

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数字 13

数字 14

Lazzarini et al.

数字 15. Comparison of
spectral snapshots of a
vocal and an AdFM vocal
声音, with I = 0.1 和
C:m = 2.

sound resulting from this arrangement has been
described as “bell- like.” Transitions between piano
and bell sounds can be effected by changing I from 0
to the desired value. The application of a low- pass
ﬁ lter at the delay- line input will also allow for some
variety and control over the brightness of the result.
再次, if we apply the heterodyning technique
instead to this input using a similar ratio, 我们将
obtain a bell- like output that is better behaved in
the higher end of the spectrum. Here the second
method might in fact be more useful, as it can
control the quality of the output more effectively.

Voice Input

A vocal input was used as the fourth different
source examined in this work, demonstrating a
沥青- shift effect. Setting the fc:fm ratio to 2, we are
able to obtain a sound that is now half the pitch of
the original. This is due to the introduction of a
component at half the fundamental frequency
corresponding to fc – fm in Equation 18.

With the index of modulation at low values

(大约 0.15), it is possible to preserve some of the
spectral shape of the original sound, a crucial step in
keeping the intelligibility of the vocal phonemes.
Although there is some addition of high- 频率

components and a ﬂ attening of spectral peaks, 这
AdFM voice is still perfectly intelligible.

数字 15 shows a comparison between a vowel

稳定的- state spectrum and its AdFM- 处理
对方. The sub- harmonic peak can be seen
at the left of the picture below the original funda-
精神的. (A peak at 0 Hz is also present, owing to the
fc – 2fm component.) The recording of the phrase,
“This is AdFM Synthesis,” is shown as a spectro-
gram in Figure 16, both as the original signal (左边)
and the AdFM output (正确的), using the same param-
eters as in the previous example. 再次, the octave
change is clearly seen, as well as the increase in the
number of signiﬁ cant components in the signal.

一般来说, we achieved better results using the
delay- line method with vocal inputs. The hetero-
dyning process seems to be too prone to artifacts
generated by unvoiced phonemes, 导致
chirps and glitches. Although these are originally
caused by the pitch- tracking mechanism, 他们
are emphasized by certain characteristics of the
method’s implementation.

结论

We presented an alternative approach to the classic
technique of FM synthesis, based on an adaptive

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数字 16. Detail of spectro-
gram of a recording of the
短语, “This is AdFM
synthesis,” with the origi-
nal vocal sound on the left
and the AdFM vocal on the
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设计, which we call AdFM. Two different methods
were proposed as a means of modulating an arbi-
trary carrier signal. As the FM synthesis theory is
众所周知的, it was possible to adapt it to determine
the precise characteristics of the output signal. 和
this technique, it is possible to achieve ﬁ ne control
over the synthetic result, which also preserves a
substantial amount of the gestural information in
the original signal. Four different types of carrier
signals were used in this work to demonstrate the
wide range of spectra that the technique can gener-
吃. We are conﬁ dent this is a simple yet effective
way of creating hybrid natural- synthetic sounds for
musical applications.

Future prospects for research into AdFM involve
the development of alternative implementations of
the technique, both in terms of time- domain
variations of the methods discussed here and new
频率- domain processes. The latter have been
facilitated by the development of the Sliding Phase
Vocoder (SPV; Bradford, Dobson, and fﬁ tch 2007),
which allows for audio- rate modulation of its

参数. It is our plan to develop a spectral
version of AdFM in Csound, as SPV analysis / syn-
thesis and audio- rate frequency scaling have been
added to the language in version 5.07.

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