Status Threat: - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

Status Threat:
Moving the Right Further to the Right?

Christopher Sebastian Parker

Over the last few years, right-wing movements have proliferated among Western
民主国家. Although much of the growth has taken place across the “pond” in
欧洲, this phenomenon is not confined to that continent. As recent events make
清除, the United States is another major case. 在这篇文章中, I offer a theory of the
emergence of reactionary movements, fueled by status threat, using the United
States as a case. To demonstrate the explanatory range of the theory (and mea-
sure), I focus on immigration, impeachment, and support for Donald Trump in
这 2020 选举. Examining self-identified Republicans only, I argue that status
threat motivates the reactionary wing of the GOP in the United States. Drawing on
data culled from a national sample, I find support for my expectation that, 超过
ideology and racism, status threat furnishes a new explanation for reactionary pref-
erences. I close with a discussion of the implications.

T he rise of right-wing movements in Western democracies over the last

several years is difficult to ignore. From Australia to Europe, right-wing
movements have achieved a measure of political success.1 The reaction-
ary right has increased its vote share in Austria, 芬兰, 法国, the United King-
多姆, 希腊, Norway, Portugal, and Sweden.2 Further, in at least thirteen Euro-
pean countries, these reactionary parties have taken part in governing coalitions.3
But Europe is not the only locale in which the reactionary right’s political pres-
ence is a factor. A more complete accounting of the political influence of the reac-
tionary right in the last twenty years must also include the United States.

America’s most recent move to the right began with the Tea Party’s emergence
during the Obama administration. After storming the American political scene in
2009, the “leaderless” movement was largely responsible for the GOP takeover of
the House of Representatives in the 2010 election cycle.4 The Tea Party sought to
maintain the cultural integrity of what it viewed as the “legitimate” American ma-
jority.5 While Donald Trump sometimes departed from Republican free-market
orthodoxy, his use of Anglo cultural appeals is very similar to, and often even
more overt than, the Tea Party’s use of them.6 Repeatedly referencing bygone pe-
riods when America would “win,” Trump made restrictions on both legal and ille-

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gal immigration central to his appeal, promising to protect the “forgotten people”
from the depredations of gangs and terrorists supposedly flooding the country’s
边界.

For anyone with even a passing familiarity with the American political right,
the Trump administration’s positions are hardly commensurate with conserva-
tism.7 A more fitting descriptor is reactionary. 最好, reactionaries, driven by sta-
tus threat, seek to preserve existing social and economic arrangements; at their
worst, they desire a return to the less egalitarian arrangements of the past, 一种风格
of politics typically associated with right-wing political movements.8 Cleavages
on the right between groups motivated by status threat and more establishment-
style conservatives are traceable to at least the early 1960s, when conservatives be-
gan to part ways with the wing of the party preoccupied with maintaining White
social prestige. It began with the rise of the John Birch Society (JBS) in the late
1950s, a reactionary group run by retired candy manufacturer turned conserva-
tive activist Robert Welch. 最终, the father of postwar conservatism, 会-
liam Buckley Jr., would eject Welch and the JBS from the conservative movement
properly understood, but not before the latter turned its membership and mon-
ey toward the nomination of Senator Barry Goldwater in 1964.9 More recently,
through its obsession with the Obama presidency, the Tea Party adhered to the
status threat model, breaking away from the more establishment conservatism of
the George W. Bush presidency.10

Conservatives, 另一方面, are not generally animated primarily by
change-induced threat. 反而, they are willing to accept change so long as it
means retaining social, 经济的, and political stability. Relative to those moti-
vated by eliminating threats to status, conservatives typically reject racial profil-
ing and suppressions of free speech, especially if such actions might result in vio-
伦斯. One way in which to view the observed differences between conservatives
and people moved by status threat is that the former are more pragmatic, 然而
the latter are more dogmatic. While conservatives prize order and stability above
all else, people operating under status threat are more concerned with maintain-
ing group prestige in a changing society.11

What explains the surge in reactionary politics in the United States? Many so-
called experts have long claimed that economic threat is the source of reactionary
政治. The logic connecting the emergence of right-wing movements and eco-
nomic anxiety is rooted in concerns over economic competition from non-Whites
during economic downturns.12 The theory is that working-class Whites gravitate
toward reactionary movements because those movements claim they will pre-
serve or recover working-class jobs. Arguments emphasizing economic threat
are often used to explain membership growth of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) 在里面
1920s, the Tea Party, Scott Walker’s support in Wisconsin, 和, 当然, 大学教师-
ald Trump.13 This explanation is plausible for those who are objectively working

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

班级, but it fails to tell us anything useful about those who do quite well econom-
ically, but remain attracted to reactionary movements.14

Other accounts of reactionary movements place difference of some kind at
the center, but it is most frequently associated with racism.15 Connecting racism
to right-wing movements does not require much imagination and, as mentioned
多于, this relationship is well documented. 即使是这样, racism may not be the sole
source of intolerance when it comes to reactionary politics. Building on histori-
an Richard Hofstadter who, 反过来, built on sociologist Joseph Gusfield’s semi-
nal work on the Temperance Movement, political scientist Matt Barreto and I ar-
gued that the Tea Party was motivated by perceived threats to its members’ way of
life.16 Indeed, more recent work makes the same case. 例如, 政治科学-
entist Diana Mutz has shown that more generalized intolerance–status threat–
influenced support for Trump in 2016 even after accounting for race-specific
intolerance.17

在这篇文章中, I illustrate the ways in which status threat informs preferences on
正确的. In the American context, this suggests a focused analysis of the Repub-
lican Party. 理论上, in the presence of partisan polarization and partisan sort-
英, it should prove difficult to find daylight of any kind in the mass public among
GOP partisans.18 To make matters even more challenging, I examine immigration,
Trump’s impeachment, and political choice in the 2020 选举, areas on which
one should find unanimity on the right. Yet even in these domains, cleavages on
the right exist. This may seem a surprise to some, but the results merely corrobo-
rate recent work on the GOP that reveals a rift on the right, the latest installment
of a long-running saga, at least fifty-five years in the making.19

This essay opens with a discussion of reactionary movements in the United
状态. The American reactionary right is motivated, in the main, by what its ad-
herents perceive as rapid social change, change that challenges the foundations of
American identity: White patriarchal dominance. (Such microlevel motives relat-
ed to identities typically connect individuals to movements.)20 Drawing on prior
工作, I then assess the predictive validity of the proposed model of reactionary pol-
荨麻疹. I show that status threat goes a long way toward explaining everything from
political choice (supporting Trump) to issues on immigration, all while accounting
for the “usual suspects” such as social dominance, 种族主义, and authoritarianism. 我
close with a few words on the meaning of these findings in light of two alternative
explanations for the rise of the reactionary right: “populism” and nationalism.

I n our book Change They Can’t Believe In: The Tea Party and Reactionary Politics in

Contemporary America, Matt Barreto and I argue that reactionary movements
are motivated by anxiety associated with the perception that social change is
happening too fast.21 For example, in addition to the election of Barack Obama
as the first non-White man to the White House (an enormous change in its own

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

正确的), the increasing visibility of gay rights, women’s rights, and immigrant rights
contributed in no small way to spurring–and sustaining–the Tea Party move-
蒙特. 换句话说, these were social and cultural course corrections, 变化
away from a norm in which American identity coincides with White Anglo-Saxon
Protestantism.22 Indeed, demographically, Tea Party sympathizers tended to be
较老的, 白色的, male, Christian, native-born, and middle-class; a demographic group
very similar to the aforementioned “prototypical” American.23

This is not the first time that demographic change spearheaded a reactionary
movement in the United States. During the mid-nineteenth century, the Know
Nothings, also known as the American Party, were concerned, among other
事物, with the growing presence of immigrants. They believed that immigrants’
attachment to Catholicism was a political and moral threat, and perceived them
as susceptible to criminality, posing a security threat to the country.24 In the ear-
ly twentieth century, the resurgent Ku Klux Klan and its supporters perceived a
threat from Blacks, 犹太人, Catholics, labor unions, and the increasing indepen-
dence of women.25 Similarly, members and supporters of the JBS in the 1950s and
1960s believed the “American way” of life to be under siege, arguing that the ex-
pansion of the federal government threatened to subvert their freedom and trans-
form the United States into a totalitarian regime.26

From the Know Nothing Party to Trump’s GOP, these reactionary movements
have much in common. For starters, in each case, the movements were a reaction
to what its constituents perceived as a threat to the “American” way of life. 不像
establishment conservatives who see social change as something that must be tol-
erated, if not necessarily embraced, in exchange for order and stability, reaction-
aries consider social change subversive.27 Further, in all four examples, the demo-
graphic group that feels most threatened is commensurate with that segment of
society closest to the stereotype on which American national identity rests.28

My theory of reactionary politics, the foundation of which is status threat, 是
key to explaining the Trump revolution.29 I have already outlined the ideal polit-
ical community for American reactionaries. For them, this restrictive definition
of “legitimate” American identity carries significant meaning. Theorists of sym-
bolic politics argue that symbols link individual (和组) objectives and aspi-
rations to the wider social and political world.30 In my formulation of reaction-
ary politics, the political community, among the more powerful political symbols,
serves as the object of the affection for reactionaries–people motivated by status
threat.31 Further, political community as symbol often 1) inspires intense affec-
tion and 2) pushes people to protect and preserve its meaning at all costs.32 Con-
依次地, threats to “real Americans” (the political community for reactionaries)
and their way of life inform their political preferences.

More than anything, the dominant group’s belief that its values and way of
life constitute the highest expression of human achievement serves as a source of

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

motivation when society is changing too fast. 而且, as a means of explaining
what they perceive as suddenly changing circumstances, they contend that an or-
ganized conspiracy of some kind is responsible. To use language commensurate
with the task of connecting these observations with established theoretical con-
油炸, status threat consists of three subdimensions: existential threat, ethnocen-
trism, and paranoid social cognition. We begin with existential threat.

American reactionaries, as I have suggested, believe their way of life is under
threat.33 Further, as I have already made clear, the Know Nothings, the Klan of the
1920s, and the Tea Party believed “real” America was in danger. 一般来说, 这
is typically associated with a perceived shift in the status quo in which culturally
dominant groups feel that their way of life is threatened by the rising influence of
culturally subordinate groups.34 However, this reasoning also extends to relation-
ships between racial dominants and subordinates.35 Among high-status groups,
and especially among high identifiers within the groups, the preferred remedy to
perceived threats is the imposition (or perpetuation) of social inequality.36 This is
something frequently observed with reactionary movements.37

Another component I believe associated with reactionary politics is the para-
noia to which Hofstadter referred. 当然, this is not about clinical paranoia,
but a paranoia of a more political nature. 在这种情况下, anxiety gives rise to what
social psychologist Roderick Kramer once referred to as “paranoid social cogni-
的,” a condition in which people have a difficult time adjusting to rapidly chang-
ing circumstances.38 To make sense of changing circumstances in which one’s sta-
tus is in flux, members of the in-group–if they are to maintain a sense of collec-
tive esteem–must identify an out-group responsible for the in-group’s perceived
衰退. Part of this process includes generating stereotypes of the dominant out-
团体, including conspiracies.39 Members of the in-group become increasingly
anxious and, 所以, paranoid about the perceived decline of their position in
社会. Similar processes motivated the conspiratorial claims concocted by Know
Nothings, the Klan, the JBS, and the Tea Party, and suggests why I include this trait
as a component of status threat.40

The final ingredient is ethnocentrism. I stress ethnocentrism for two reasons.
第一的, to the extent that ethnocentrism places the in-group at the center, one need
look no further than the regularity with which American reactionaries have, 超过
这些年, referenced “the American way of life” and “real Americans.”41 Further,
to make this global in scope, the group-based component of the reactionary right
must include racism and nativism: racism to capture the centuries-old Black-
White conflict, nativism for more recent arrivals.42 Ethnocentrism fits the bill.
According to sociologist William Sumner, ethnocentrism is about the superiori-
ty of the in-group, which results in out-group derogation. Unpacking this simple
dichotomy suggests that ethnocentrism is actually more complex.43 Among oth-
er factors, preference for one’s group, belief in the in-group’s cultural superiority

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

and purity, and the welfare of the in-group taking precedence over the welfare of
other groups is capacious enough to accommodate the intergroup dynamics iden-
tified by racism and nativism. 更远, it does so parsimoniously and is not limited
by time.44 In other words, ethnocentrism in the twenty-first century is very much
like ethnocentrism at the beginning of the twentieth century.

I contend that existential threat, paranoid social cognition, and ethnocentrism,
集体地, index status threat.45 Of course, each subdimension, by itself, rep-
resents a distinct theoretical approach. 然而, as other scholars of intolerance
have demonstrated, social science sometimes requires a more synthetic theoretical
方法. 例如, social dominance theory, right-wing authoritarianism, 和
racial resentment all weave at least two theories together into a single approach.46

Using a six-item scale in which two items tap each of the three dimensions, 我的
colleagues and I tested this formulation, and the model fit the data.47 Further, 这
model of status threat performed well in tests of convergent and discriminant va-
lidity. 例如, status threat enjoys a strong relationship with racial resent-
蒙特, but is also shunned by those who place themselves on the “liberal” end of
the ideological spectrum. On assessing the predictive validity of status threat, 我
investigated how it might fare predicting support for the Tea Party. This is key in
that Barreto and I employed support for the Tea Party as a proxy for status threat.48
To make things interesting, we controlled for partisanship, ideology, and racial re-
sentment, all of which are closely related to support for the Tea Party. As it turns
出去, even after accounting for other related factors, status threat was bested–albeit
narrowly–only by racial resentment in predicting support for the Tea Party.

A rmed with this direct measure of status politics (status threat), I now turn

to the task of assessing the extent to which it informs how residents of the
political right–that is, Republican partisans–view immigration, Trump’s
conduct and potential consequences, and support for the incumbent president in the
2020 选举. Immigration is a subject of inquiry for at least three reasons: 1) 骗局-
cerns about undocumented Latino immigrants are a principal reason why Whites
switch to the Republican Party; 2) 在 2016, concerns about immigration tended to
push people to support Trump; 和 3) prior to the coronavirus sweeping the nation,
a Gallup poll showed that only terrorism/national security bested immigration as
the most important issue among GOP partisans.49 Trump’s (第一的) impeachment
represented another issue of interest given the robust support among rank-and-file
Republicans (86 百分) who thought he should retain his office.50 With an overall
approval rating of 91 percent among Republicans, Trump was buoyed at the polls in
2020 by a party that closed ranks around their president, even after his mishandling
of the coronavirus and ordering troops to invade American cities.51

再次, the central question is whether status threat is a source of division
among Republicans. But what of alternative explanations? How is authoritari-

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

anism relevant to contemporary politics?52 We would expect authoritarians, 作为
people who prefer conformity above all else, to reject immigrants (and immi-
gration) at all costs and support all things Trump.53 Similarly, social dominance
orientation, a belief system organized around the perceived existence of domi-
nant and subordinate social groups, also informed support for Trump in 2016.54
Last but certainly not least, we must also account for racism.55 Race and racism
are at the center of contemporary politics.56 If we are to have any confidence in
the explanatory power of status threat, we must account for these alternative ex-
planations.

Turning first to immigration, I used the following questions to gauge the pub-

lic’s attitudes toward immigrants and immigration:

1. Do you support or oppose an effort by the federal government to deport all
undocumented immigrants and send them back to their home countries?
2. Do you think it should be easier or harder for foreigners to immigrate to the

United States legally than it is currently?

3. Do you support or oppose providing a legal way for “illegal” immigrants al-

ready in the United States to become American citizens?

I combined these items into an index as a means of exploring attitudes toward

immigration.57

As the results suggest, there is less consensus on immigration in the GOP than
one might think.58 It seems as if the most status-threatened Republicans take a
harder line on immigration than co-partisans who are more secure in their posi-
在美国. 实际上, status threat is only bested by racism in its influence on
immigration attitudes on the political right. No real surprise here, 尽管, giv-
en the ways in which immigration is often racialized.59 Hardcore, self-identified
conservatives are, likewise, less than forgiving when it comes to immigration pol-
icy. 清楚地, a steady diet of Fox News tends to push people away from toleration
of immigration. The only demographic explanation that provides any leverage is
年龄, with younger Republicans reporting more tolerant attitudes toward immi-
gration relative to their older counterparts.

We turn our attention next to President Trump’s conduct: allegedly solicit-
ing foreign involvement in the American political process when he requested that
Ukraine investigate his political rival, Joe Biden. Though he was ultimately im-
peached, the Republican conference in the Senate held fast (Mitt Romney as the
lone exception), and Trump was not removed from office. To tap into Republican
sentiment around this incident, I asked three questions:

1. Do you think it was appropriate or inappropriate for the president to request
a foreign government open an investigation into one of his potential political
opponents?

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

Christopher Sebastian Parker

数字 1
Index of Republican Attitudes toward Immigration

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来源: The data on which Figures 1–6 and related analysis rest is an online study I conducted
in the autumn of 2019. It consists of a national sample of adults stratifi ed by self-identifi ed
partisanship, of which about one thousand Republicans and one thousand independents were
recruited from an online panel.

2. Some people think President Trump should be impeached and removed;

others think he shouldn’t be impeached and removed. What do you think?

3. Some people think President Trump abused the power of his offi ce by urging
the President of Ukraine to open an investigation of a potential opponent in
the next election. Other people think that the House is just playing politics and
oppose the impeachment inquiry. What about you? What do you think?60

The results for impeachment mirror those for immigration insofar as they re-
veal cracks among the Republican faithful. 例如, more educated Republi-
cans and less conservative Republicans (the ideology trait) are more likely to have
favored impeachment than less educated and more conservative GOP partisans,
分别. 另一方面, consumption of Fox News appears to have damp-
ened the appetite for impeachment, encouraging disbelief or a more forgiving dis-
position toward Trump’s alleged abuse of power. 再次, status threat weighs in on

150 (2) 春天 2021

Status Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

数字 2
Index of Republican Support for Trump’s First Impeachment

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the preferences for Republicans: the more status threatened Republicans are, 这
more forgiving they are toward Trump’s alleged transgressions, and the less they
support impeachment and possible removal from offi ce.

最后, I address what motivated Republicans to support Trump or not in the
2020 election cycle. To gauge support for Trump in 2020, I asked: “How likely are
you to vote to reelect President Trump in 2020?” As we observed with immigra-
tion and impeachment, there are considerable differences among co-partisans.
For starters, the likelihood of voting for Trump varies with age, with older parti-
sans more inclined to support the incumbent than younger ones. Watching Fox
News also predicted support for Trump in 2020. Ideology also plays a role here:
increasing self-declared conservatism increased support for Trump during the
选举. Having said this, racism is the most powerful predictor in the model, 但
not by much. 再次, status threat makes a strong showing, albeit narrowly beaten
out by racism in shaping the likelihood that Republicans in the public will vote for
Trump in the most recent election.

Even a cursory examination of the results makes clear the explanatory power of
status threat. 为了确定, other factors emerged as consistent predictors, 尤其

代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & 科学

Christopher Sebastian Parker

数字 3
Index of Republican Support for Trump in 2020 选举

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consumption of Fox News, ideology, and racism. Of these, ideology, in the guise of
conservatism, is generally believed the chief threat to reactionary sentiments in-
dexed by status threat.61 As such, a focused comparison between ideology and sta-
tus threat is more than appropriate. For theoretical purposes, I focus on the higher
价值观, ones that compare the “conservative” end of the ideological self-placement
item, and those who believe their status is more threatened than others. The results
are depicted in Figures 4, 5, 和 6. Relative to hardcore conservatives, those who
feel the status of their group threatened are more committed in their support for
Trump in 2020 and more resolute in their refusal to welcome “illegal immigrants”
than Republicans who believe their status isn’t so threatened. 即使是这样, 不同之处-
ences are slight. A glance at the differences in the point estimates drives this home.
When it comes to impeachment, no daylight exists between the groups. 多于
任何事物, in tandem with the fi ndings in Figures 1–3, it is clear that status threat
and conservatism each contributes to the ways in which Republicans in the mass
public think about these issues. 更重要的是, the “status threatened” are mo-
tivated by anxiety associated with impending social and cultural displacement,
while conservatives are more concerned with maintaining the status quo.

150 (2) 春天 2021

Status Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

数字 4
Status Threat/Ideology and Attitudes toward Immigration

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数字 5
Status Threat/Ideology and Support for Trump’s First Impeachment

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & 科学

Christopher Sebastian Parker

数字 6
Status Threat/Ideology and Support for Trump in 2020 选举

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I was not caught by surprise by the inability of authoritarianism or social dom-
inance orientation to gain traction. This has happened before.62 As it turns out,
status threat explains the impact of both on reactionary sentiment, at least as they
are related to Trump-based preferences. 例如, once I remove status threat
from the model, the impact of both on Trump-related references becomes evi-
凹痕. 仍然, it may well be the case that alternative measurements of authoritarian-
ism such as right-wing authoritarianism and a longer version of the social domi-
nance orientation scale would fare better. 目前, 然而, it seems as if next to
种族主义, status threat is well positioned to explain contemporary Republican pref-
erences, at least as they pertain to Trump.

更远, these fi ndings connect well to recent work that identifi es an insurgent
wing of the GOP and that pinpoints status threat as a source of the rift.63 Finally,
these results successfully interrogate the proposition that class has anything to do
with reactionary politics.64 Whether assayed by education or income, class has
mostly no impact on contemporary reactionary politics, something that confi rms
prior work.65 In sum, in a properly specifi ed model in which symbolic threat is in-
cluded, material threat fails to tell us much about reactionary politics.

150 (2) 春天 2021

R ight-wing movements are enjoying a global resurgence. Nowhere is this

more true than in the United States where, beginning with the Tea Party,
the GOP permitted a reactionary movement to hijack a major party, 和
disastrous consequences. To some, the Trump presidency began to transform the
United States into an authoritarian regime.66 If this happened, it wouldn’t be the
first time in the United States. The role the Ku Klux Klan played in the solidifica-
tion of Jim Crow and the threats carried out by the White Citizens Councils after
Brown v. Board of Education represent other instances in which a reactionary move-
蒙特, driven by status threat, challenged American democracy.67 Given the dis-
positive role of race in American history, it’s no surprise that racism looms large
in reactionary movements and the ensuing politics.

Having said this, the discerning reader may wonder why I failed to include
“populism” or nationalism as alternatives to status threat. This is a valid concern.
On elaboration of the reasons for which I excluded them from the analysis, it will
be clear why I’ve chosen to do so. I begin with populism.

Problems with the contemporary use of populism are manifold. I will dis-
cuss two here: the ontological and the empirical. Briefly, on the ontological front,
some believe it a “thin” ideology; 其他的, given the failure of populism to meet
the criteria typically associated with ideologies, are given to calling it a rhetorical
style deployed by elites.68 It stands to reason that ontological cloudiness on popu-
lism will lead to empirical issues, especially as they apply to microlevels of analy-
姐姐, where some argue that populism is commensurate with an attitude.69 It is as-
sumed that people who support populist platforms are themselves populists: 那
是, people motivated by economic issues and intolerance. Assessing the latter is
fairly straightforward, and it does predict support for populist parties: antipathy
toward immigrants tends to increase support for parties touting populist plat-
forms.70 As it turns out, 然而, attempting to discriminate between populists
and nonpopulists along class-based lines doesn’t always work. When indexed by
subjective and objective class position, support for populism across studies is at
best inconsistent. 实际上, a recent paper suggests that, beyond intolerance, 那里
is no one thing capable of defining the populist voter.71 Further, attempts to suc-
cessfully measure populism at the mass level have proven difficult, 包括
American case.72

Nationalism, 也, is a possible explanation for Trump’s success. He even
thinks himself a nationalist. Nationalism, in a classical sense, according to his-
torical sociologist Anthony Smith, is an “ideological movement for attaining and
maintaining autonomy, [A] unified identity of a population deemed by some of
its members to constitute an actual or potential ‘nation.’”73 Further, nationalism
is generally thought a largely political project through which elites seek to justify
rule over certain territory, to be inhabited by a mostly homogenous population.74
Elites make strategic decisions on whom to include in, and whom to exclude from,

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

the nation-building project. This is done for the purpose of binding together more
or less similar groups who may have been in conflict in the past, or might clash in
未来. The creation of a newly constructed “we” against a “they” reinforces
a sense of solidarity that will serve as the basis for the nation-state, while stigma-
tizing the “other.”

American nationalism, 然而, is a bit more complex. The same basic prin-
ciples apply, like solidarity around a primordial identity. But the American vari-
ant includes at least one other component. American national identity, based as it
is on liberal (启示) 原则, leans heavily on a set of values prescrip-
tive of rights and duties that makes possible the concept of civic nationalism:
belief in the American creed. 一些, 所以, believe that American nationalism
consists of racial and civic components.75 Political scientist Rogers Smith agrees
with the racial and civic perspectives, but adds a third: republicanism.76 Other,
data-driven perspectives include four dimensions of American nationalism.77 In
也就是说, the contours of American nationalism remain murky.

那就是说, if the results from the analysis are any indication, status threat may
well lend insight on what motivates reactionary politics. Unlike earlier reports
claiming that class or economic anxiety carries the day, material motives, 为了
大部分, offer next to nothing in the way of leverage when it comes to explaining
reactionary politics and the right-wing movements they fuel. This suggests that
scholars may wish to examine symbolic motives as a means of elaborating on re-
actionary movements. 毕竟, the proposition that Trump’s victory was driv-
en by working-class Whites is a myth: many of his followers are well-to-do, 和
two-thirds making more than the national median income.78 If reactionary poli-
tics in the United States is truly driven by the anxiety accompanying the dominant
group’s belief that they’re losing “their” country, and not by economic concerns,
no amount of redistribution will temper their support for draconian immigration
措施, nor their willingness to countenance the move away from democracy.79
We need to look elsewhere, 然后, for the solution to the current predicament.

关于作者

Christopher Sebastian Parker is Professor of Political Science at the Universi-
ty of Washington. He is the author of Change They Can’t Believe In: The Tea Party and
Reactionary Politics in Contemporary America (with Matt A. Barreto, 2013) and Fighting
for Democracy: Black Veterans and the Struggle Against White Supremacy in the Postwar South
(2009). His next book is titled The Great White Hope: Donald Trump, 种族, and the Crisis
of American Democracy.

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

尾注

1 Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Cultural Backlash: Trump, 英国脱欧, and Authoritarian Populism

(剑桥: 剑桥大学出版社, 2019).

2 Maureen Eger and Sara Valdez, “Neo-Nationalism in Western Europe,” European Sociolog-

ical Review 31 (1) (2015): 115–130.

3 Timothy Immerzeel, Voting for a Change: The Democratic Lure of Populist Radical Right Parties

in Voting Behavior (博士. 指责。, Utrecht University, 2015).

4 Christopher S. Parker and Matt A. Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In: The Tea Party and

Reactionary Politics in America (普林斯顿大学, 新泽西州: 普林斯顿大学出版社, 2014).

5 Jamelle Bouie, “Trump’s America Is a ‘White Man’s Country,’” The New York Times, 七月 15,
2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/15/opinion/trump-aoc-omar-pelosi.html.
6 Christopher Sebastian Parker and Matt A. Barreto, The Great White Hope: Donald Trump, 种族,
and the Crisis of American Democracy (芝加哥: 芝加哥大学出版社, under contract).
7 看, 例如, Rachel M. Blum and Christopher S. 派克, “Trump-ing Foreign Affairs:
The Role of Status Threat in Mass Foreign Policy Preferences,” Perspectives on Politics 17
(3) (2019): 737–755.

8 For examples of work featuring reactionary politics, see Christopher M. Federico and
Agnieszka Golec de Zavala, “Collective Narcissism and the 2016 我们. Presidential
Vote,” Public Opinion Quarterly 82 (1) (2018): 110–121; Seymour M. Lipset and Earl Raab,
The Politics of Unreason: Right-Wing Extremism in America, 1790–1977 (芝加哥: 大学
芝加哥出版社, 1978); Diana C. Mutz, “Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Ex-
plains the 2016 Presidential Vote,” 美国国家科学院院刊 115 (19)
(2018); and Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.

9 See Geoffrey Kabaservice, Rule and Ruin: The Downfall of Moderation and the Destruction of
the Republican Party, from Eisenhower to the Tea Party (纽约: 牛津大学出版社,
2011); and Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (王子-
吨, 新泽西州: 普林斯顿大学出版社, 2001).
10 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
11 Patrick Allitt, The Conservatives: Ideas and Personalities throughout American History (New Hav-
在, 康涅狄格州: 耶鲁大学出版社, 2009); John T. Jost, Jack Glaser, Arie W. Kruglanski,
and Frank J. Sulloway, “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psy-
chological Bulletin 129 (3) (2003): 339–375; Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke
to Santayana (芝加哥: Henry Regnery, 1953); Lipset and Raab, The Politics of Unreason;
Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In; and Clinton Rossiter, Conservatism in
美国 (剑桥, 大量的。: 哈佛大学出版社, 1982).

12 Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (最小-

neapolis: 明尼苏达大学出版社, 2009).

13 Kathy Cramer, The Politics of Resentment: Rural Consciousness in Wisconsin and the Rise of Scott Walk-
是 (芝加哥: 芝加哥大学出版社, 2016); Arlie Hochschild, Strangers in Their Own
Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right (纽约: The New Press, 2016); McVeigh,
The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan; and Rory McVeigh and Kevin Estep, The Politics of Losing: Trump,
the Klan, and the Mainstreaming of Resentment (纽约: 哥伦比亚大学出版社, 2019).
14 James McEvoy III, Radicals or Conservatives? The Contemporary American Right (芝加哥: Rand
McNally, 1971); Lipset and Raab, The Politics of Unreason; and Parker and Barreto, 改变
They Can’t Believe In.

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

15 Sara Diamond, Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movement and Political Power in the United States
(纽约: The Guilford Press, 1995); Jon Green and Sean McElwee, “The Differen-
tial Effects of Economic Conditions and Racial Attitudes in the Election of Donald
Trump,” Perspectives on Politics 17 (2) (2019): 358–379; Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux
Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (纽约: 牛津大学出版社, 1967); Joseph E. Lown-
des, From the New Deal to the New Right: Race and the Southern Origins of Modern Conservatism
(新天堂, 康涅狄格州: 耶鲁大学出版社, 2009); Leonard J. 摩尔, Citizen Klansmen:
The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928 (教堂山: University of North Carolina Press,
1991); and Neil R. McMillen, The Citizens’ Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Recon-
struction (原野: 伊利诺伊大学出版社, 1971).

16 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In. See also Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid
Style in American Politics and Other Essays (剑桥, 大量的。: Harvard University Press,
1965); and Joseph R. Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance
Movement (原野: 伊利诺伊大学出版社, 1963).

17 Mutz, “Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Explains the 2016 Presidential Vote.”
18 看, 例如, Matthew Levandusky, The Partisan Sort (芝加哥: 芝加哥大学
按, 2009); and Lilliana Mason, Uncivil Agreement: How Politics Became Our Identity (志-
卡戈: 芝加哥大学出版社, 2018).

19 Rachel M. 布鲁姆, How the Tea Party Captured the GOP: Insurgent Factions in American Politics (奇卡-
去: 芝加哥大学出版社, 2020); and Blum and Parker, “Trump-ing Foreign Affairs.”
20 看, 例如, Bert Klandermans, “Identity Politics and Politicized Identities: Identi-
ty Processes and the Dynamics of Protest,” Political Psychology 35 (1) (2014): 1–22.

21 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
22 Thierry Devos and Mahzarin Banaji, “America = White?” Journal of Personality and Social
心理学 88 (3) (2005): 447–466; and Rogers M. 史密斯, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of
Citizenship in U.S. 历史 (新天堂, 康涅狄格州: 耶鲁大学出版社, 1997).

23 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In, 小伙子. 2.
24 Tyler Anbinder, Nativism & Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings & the Politics of the 1850s (新的
约克: 牛津大学出版社, 1992); and Bruce Levin, “保守主义, Nativism, 和
Slavery: 托马斯·R. Whitney and the Origins of the Know-Nothing Party,》杂志
American History 88 (2) (2001): 455–488.

25 Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan (新的
约克: 牛津大学出版社, 1994); McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan; and Lipset
and Raab, The Politics of Unreason.

26 J. Allen Broyles, The John Birch Society: Anatomy of a Protest (波士顿: Beacon Press, 1966);
Arnold Forster and Benjamin R. 爱泼斯坦, The Radical Right: Report on the John Birch Society
and Its Allies (纽约: 兰登书屋, 1967); and Robert Welch, The Blue Book of the
John Birch Society (Belmont, 大量的。: Western Islands, 1961).

27 Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays; Lipset and Raab, The Poli-

tics of Unreason; and Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.

28 Devos and Banaji, “America = White?”; and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, Who Counts as an
美国人? The Boundaries of National Identity (纽约: 剑桥大学出版社, 2009).
To be clear, we do not claim that all of these movements are identical in every respect,
because they are not. For the sake of brevity, we highlight only the most relevant dimen-
西翁. For more on differences, see Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

29 Christopher Sebastian Parker, Carl Berning, and David Smith, “What Moves Reaction-

ary Movements?” Advances in Political Psychology (即将推出).

30 Larry R. Baas, “The Constitution as Symbol: The Interpersonal Sources of the Meaning of
a Secondary Symbol,” American Journal of Political Science 23 (1) (1979): 101–120; 查尔斯
D. Elder and Roger W. 科布, The Political Uses of Symbols (伦敦: 朗文, 1983); 和
David O. Sears, “Symbolic Politics: A Socio-Psychological Theory,” in Explorations in Po-
litical Psychology, 编辑. Shanto Iyengar (达勒姆, 北卡罗来纳州: 杜克大学出版社, 1993).

31 Elder and Cobb, The Political Uses of Symbols.
32 同上.
33 当然, this means that I reject a more conventional source of threat: ethnic compe-
tition. 这里, the perceived zero-sum interethnic competition over jobs, 住房, 和
welfare benefits, among other things, are believed to animate the reactionary right.
然而, this approach has been called into serious question. 更远, work on Ameri-
can reactionary movements indicates that material insecurity has no bearing on wheth-
er people are attracted to them. What seems to drive people to sympathize with such
movements and, in some instances, join is the perception that their way of life is un-
der threat, something that transcends material threat. For the ways in which material
goods are believed to motivate the reactionary right, see Hans-Georg Betz, “Introduc-
的,” in The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established De-
mocracies, 编辑. Hans-George Betz and Stefan Immerfall (伦敦: Palgrave MacMillan,
1998). For an interrogation of this proposition, see Jens Rydgren, “Immigration Scep-
抽动症, Xenophobes or Racists? Radical Right-Wing Voting in Six West European Coun-
尝试,” European Journal of Political Research 47 (6) (2008): 737–765. For the American per-
观望的, see Forster and Epstein, The Radical Right; Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in Amer-
ican Politics and Other Essays; Lipset and Raab, The Politics of Unreason; MacLean, Behind the
Mask of Chivalry; and Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.

34 看, 例如, Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade.
35 Maureen A. Craig and Jennifer A. Richeson, “On the Precipice of a ‘Majority-Minority’
美国: Perceived Status Threat From the Racial and Demographic Shift Affects
White Americans’ Political Ideology,” Psychological Science 25 (6) (2014): 1189–1197; 和
Brenda Major, Alison Blodorn, and Gregory Major Blascovich, “The Threat of Increas-
ing Diversity: Why Many White Americans Support Trump in the 2016 Presidential
选举,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 21 (6) (2016): 931–940.

36 Kimberly Rios Morrison, Nathan J. Fast, and Oscar Ybarra, “Group Status, Perception of
Threat and Support for Social Inequality,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (1)
(2009): 204–210.

37 Kevin Arceneaux and Stephen P. Nicholson, “Who Wants to Have a Tea Party? 这
WHO, 什么, and Why of the Tea Party Movement,” PS : 政治学与政治学 45 (4)
(2012): 700–710; Theda R. Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Re-
making of Republican Conservatism (纽约: 牛津大学出版社, 2011); Anbinder,
Nativism & Slavery; MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry; Forster and Epstein, The Radical
正确的; and Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.

38 Roderick Kramer, “Paranoid Cognition in Social Systems: Thinking and Acting in the

Shadow of Doubt,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 2 (4) (1998): 251–275.

39 苏珊·T. Fiske, Beth Morling, and Laura E. Stevens, “Controlling Self and Others: A The-
ory of Anxiety, Mental Control, and Social Control,” Personality and Social Psychology Bul-
letin 22 (2) (1996): 115–123.

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

40 Christopher C. Towler, Reactionary or Traditional Conservatism? The Origins and Consequences
of The Far Right Movement of the 1960s (博士. 指责。, 华盛顿大学, 2014); 一个-
binder, Nativism & Slavery; MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry; and Parker and Barreto,
Change They Can’t Believe In.

41 Boris Bizumic and John Duckitt, “What Is and Is Not Ethnocentrism? A Conceptual
Analysis and Political Implications,” Political Psychology 33 (6) (2012): 887–909; 和
Lipset and Raab, The Politics of Unreason.

42 Racism and nativism are often linked, but this needn’t always be the case. For their link-
年龄, see Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America
(普林斯顿大学, 新泽西州: 普林斯顿大学出版社, 2004). For exceptions, see Anbinder, Na-
tivism & Slavery; and Levin, “保守主义, Nativism, and Slavery.”

43 Boris Bizumic, John Duckitt, Dragan Popadic, 等人。, “A Cross-Cultural Investigation
into a Reconceptualization of Ethnocentrism,” European Journal of Social Psychology 39 (6)
(2009): 871–899.

44 Bizumic and Duckitt, “What Is and Is Not Ethnocentrism?”
45 Scale items: 1) There are forces in American society that may be changing the country for
the worse; 2) Most people in America don’t realize how much our lives are controlled
by plots hatched in secret places; 3) I often feel that the really important matters in
America are decided by people we never even hear about; 4) As soon as immigrants ar-
rive here they try to bring America down by refusing to abide by our laws; 5) The true
American way of life is disappearing so fast that we must do anything, and everything,
to save it; 和 6) I am afraid there isn’t going to be as much freedom for real Americans
as time goes on. Response options: A) Very concerned; 乙) Somewhat concerned; C)
Not that concerned; d) Not at all concerned; (Don’t Know); 和 (Refused). The items
hang together well: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.88. For details on the measurement model,
see Parker, Berning, 和史密斯, “What Moves Reactionary Movements?”

46 Robert Altemeyer, The Authoritarian Specter (剑桥, 大量的。: 哈佛大学出版社,
1996); Donald R. Kinder and Lynn M. Sanders, Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Demo-
cratic Ideals (芝加哥: 芝加哥大学出版社, 1996); and Jim Sidanius and Felicia
Pratto, Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression (纽约:
剑桥大学出版社, 1999).

47 Parker et al., “What Moves Reactionary Movements?” Data were collected through an
online panel administered by Qualtrics from August 2019 to October 2019. Respon-
dents were those who self-identify as either Independent or Republican, N=600 of
each. The sample is national in scope, with a mean completion time of approximately
twenty minutes. The study was supported by the Royalty Research Fund, at the Univer-
sity of Washington.

48 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
49 On Latino immigration serving as a source of Whites switching to the GOP, see Marissa
Abrajano and Zoltan Hajnal, White Backlash: Immigration, 种族, and American Politics (王子-
吨, 新泽西州: 普林斯顿大学出版社, 2015). On how immigration scores in recent polls
among the GOP, see Zach Hrynowski, “Several Issues Tie as Most Important in 2020 电气-
的,” Gallup, 一月 13, 2020, https://news.gallup.com/poll/276932/several-issues
-tie-important-2020-election.aspx.

50 “By a Narrow Margin, Americans Say Senate Trial Should Result in Trump’s Removal,”
皮尤研究中心, 一月 22, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/01/
22/by-a-narrow-margin-americans-say-senate-trial-should-result-in-trumps-removal/.

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150 (2) Spring 2021Christopher Sebastian Parker

51 Jeffrey M. 琼斯, “Trump’s Job Approval Rating Steady at Lower Level,” Gallup, 七月 6,
2020, https://news.gallup.com/poll/313454/trump-job-approval-rating-steady-lower
-level.aspx.

52 Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt, How Democracies Die (纽约: Crown, 2018).
53 看, 例如, Karen Stenner, The Authoritarian Dynamic (纽约: Cambridge Uni-

大学出版社, 2005).

54 Mutz, “Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Explains the 2016 Presidential Vote.”
55 The four-item racial resentment scale is used to measure racism. 然而, this measure
is not absent controversy. For the racial resentment scale, see Kinder and Sanders, 从-
vided by Color. For an interrogation of the concept and its content, see David C. Wilson
and Darren W. 戴维斯, “Reexamining Racial Resentment: Conceptualization and Con-
帐篷,” American Academy of Political and Social Science 634 (1) (2011): 117–113.

56 看, 例如, Christopher Sebastian Parker, “Race and Politics in the Age of Obama,”

Annual Review of Sociology 42 (2016): 217–230.

57 The reliability for the proposed index is “acceptable” at 0.67. For more on assessing scale
reliability, see George Ursachi, Ioana Alexandra Horodnic, and Adriana Zait, “How Re-
liable Are Measurement Scales? External Factors with Indirect Influence on Reliability
Estimators,” Procedia Economics and Finance 20 (2015): 679–686.

58 In recognition of the fact that my scale includes an item that refers to immigration, 和
might therefore unduly bias the results associated with status threat in the model, I esti-
mated the model after dropping the item from the scale. While the reliability of the scale
was a bit lower (alpha=0.77), there were no substantive differences with the revised scale.
59 Ted Brader, Nicholas A. Valentino, and Elizabeth Suhay, “What Triggers Public Opposi-
tion to Immigration? 焦虑, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat,” American Journal
of Political Science 52 (4) (2008): 959–978; Ngai, Impossible Subjects; and Efrén O. Pérez,
“Explicit Evidence on the Import of Implicit Attitudes: The IAT and Immigration Poli-
cy Judgments,” Political Behavior 32 (4) (2010): 517–545.

60 These items, when scaled, enjoy a respectable reliability at 0.72.
61 看, 例如, Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays; 和

Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
62 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
63 布鲁姆, How the Tea Party Captured the GOP; and Blum and Parker, “Trump-ing Foreign

Affairs.”

64 Cramer, The Politics of Resentment.
65 Parker and Barreto, Change They Can’t Believe In.
66 Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die.
67 Christopher Sebastian Parker and Christopher C. Towler, “Race and Authoritarianism in
American Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science 22 (2019): 503–519; Leon F. Litwack.
Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (纽约: 阿尔弗雷德·A. 克诺夫, 1998);
and McMillen, The Citizens’ Council.

68 I hasten to add that relatively few Americans are even capable of thinking ideologically,
and those with such capabilities tend to reside in the upper classes, among the relative-
ly well educated. 当然, this runs counter to most accounts of those who support

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesStatus Threat: Moving the Right Further to the Right?

populists: that they tend to be among the lower classes. For accounts of the incapa-
bility of the electorate to think in ideological terms, see Philip Converse, “The Nature
of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in Ideology and Its Discontents, 编辑. David Apter (新的
约克: The Free Press, 1964); and Donald R. Kinder and Nathan P. Kalmoe, Neither Liberal
nor Conservative: Ideological Innocence in the American Public (芝加哥: University of Chica-
go Press, 2014). On populism as a “thin” ideology, see Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right
Parties in Europe (纽约: 剑桥大学出版社, 2007). And on elites’ cynical
use of populist language, see Paul Aslandis, “Is Populism an Ideology? A Refutation
and a New Perspective,” Political Studies 64 (1) (2015): 88–104; and Bart Bonikowski and
Noam Gidron, “The Populist Style in American Politics: Presidential Campaign Dis-
课程, 1952–1996,” Social Forces 94 (4) (2016): 1593–1621.

69 Agnes Akkerman, Cas Mudde, and Andrej Zaslove, “How Populist Are the People? Mea-
suring Populist Attitudes in Voters,” Comparative Political Studies 47 (9) (2014): 1324–
1352; and Bram Spruyt, Gil Keppens, and Flip Van Droogerbroeck, “Who Supports Pop-
ulism and What Attracts People to It?” Political Research Quarterly 69 (2) (2006): 335–346.
70 Anthony Mughan and Pamela Paxton, “Anti-Immigrant Sentiment, Policy Preferences,
and Populist Party Voting in Australia,” British Journal of Political Science 36 (2) (2006):
341–358.

71 Matthijs Rooduijn, “What Unites the Voter Bases of Populist Parties? Comparing the
Electorates of 15 Populist Parties,” European Political Science Review 10 (3) (2018): 351–368.
72 Steven M. Van Hauwaert, Christian H. Schimpf, and Flavio Azevedo, “The Measure-
ment of Populist Attitudes: Testing Cross-National Scales Using Item Response Theo-
里,” Politics 40 (1) (2020): 3–21; and Bruno Castahno Silva, Sebastian Jungkunz, 马克
Helbing, and Levente Littvay, “An Empirical Comparison of Seven Populist Attitude
Scales,” Political Research Quarterly 73 (2) (2020): 409–429.

73 Anthony D. 史密斯, Myths and Memories of the Nation (纽约: 牛津大学出版社,

1999), 73.

74 克雷格·卡尔霍恩, Nationalism (明尼阿波利斯: 明尼苏达大学出版社, 1997); and Er-
nest Gellner, 民族与民族主义 (伊萨卡岛, 纽约: 康奈尔大学出版社, 1983).
75 Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the 20th Century (普林斯顿大学, 新泽西州: 王子-
ton University Press, 2001); and Anatol Lieven, America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of
American Nationalism (纽约: 牛津大学出版社, 2004).

76 史密斯, Myths and Memories of the Nation.
77 Bart Bonikowski and Paul Di Maggio, “Varieties of Popular Nationalism,” American Socio-
逻辑审查 81 (5) (2016): 949–980; and Deborah J. Schildkraut, Press “One” for English:
Language Policy, Public Opinion, and American Identity (普林斯顿大学, 新泽西州: 普林斯顿大学
按, 2005).

78 Jeff Manza and Ned Crowley, “Working Class Hero? Interrogating the Social Bases of
the Rise of Donald Trump,” The Forum 15 (1) (2017): 3–28; and Nicholas Carnes and
Noam Lupu, “It’s Time to Bust the Myth: Most Trump Voters Were Not Working
班级,” The Washington Post, 六月 5, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/
monkey-cage/wp/2017/06/05/its-time-to-bust-the-myth-most-trump-voters-were
-not-working-class/.