s0 = W 1[

←−
H 0;

−→
h N ] + b1,

where W 1 and b1 are model parameters.

For each decoding step m, the decoder feeds
the concatenation of the embedding of the current
input eym and the previous context vector ζm−1
into the LSTM model to update its hidden state:

sm = LSTM(sm−1, [eym; ζm−1]).

Then the attention probability αm,i on the attention
vector hi ∈ H for the current decode step is
calculated as:

(西德:15)米,i = v

(西德:124)
2 tanh(W hhi + W ssm + b2)

αm,i =

经验值((西德:15)米,我)
j=1 exp((西德:15)米,j)

(西德:80)氮

.

W h, W s, v2, and b2 are model parameters. 这
new context vector ζm is calculated via

ζm =

氮
(西德:88)

我=1

αm,ihi.

The output probability distribution over the target
vocabulary at the current state is calculated by

P vocab = softmax(V 3[sm, ζm] + b3),

(1)

where V 3 and b3 are learnable parameters.

4

Incorporating AMR

数字 2 shows the overall architecture of our
模型, which adopts a BiLSTM (bottom left)
and our graph recurrent network (GRN)2 (底部
正确的) for encoding the source sentence and AMR,
分别. An attention-based LSTM decoder
is used to generate the output sequence in the
target language, with attention models over both
the sequential encoder and the graph encoder. 这

2We show the advantage of our graph encoder by com-
paring with another popular method for encoding AMRs in
部分 6.3.

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数字 2: Overall architecture of our model.

数字 3: Architecture of the graph recurrent network.

attention memory for the graph encoder is from
the last step of the graph state transition process,
which is shown in Figure 3.

4.1 Encoding AMR with GRN

数字 3 shows the overall structure of our graph
recurrent network for encoding AMR graphs,
which follows Song et al. (2018). 正式地, 给定
an AMR graph G = (V , 乙), we use a hidden
state vector aj to represent each node vj ∈ V .
The state of the graph can thus be represented as:

g = {aj}|vj ∈V .

In order to capture non-local interaction between
节点, information exchange between nodes is
executed through a sequence of state transitions,
leading to a sequence of states g0, g1, . . . , gT ,
where gt = {aj
t }|vj ∈V , and T is the number of
state transitions, which is a hyperparameter. 这
initial state g0 consists of a set of initial node
states aj
0 = a0, where a0 is a vector of all zeros.
A recurrent neural network is used to model the
state transition process. 尤其, the transi-
tion from gt−1 to gt consists of a hidden state tran-
sition for each node (such as from aj
t−1 to aj
t ),
如图 3. At each state transition
step t, our model conducts direct communication
between a node and all nodes that are directly con-
nected to the node. To avoid gradient diminishing
or bursting, LSTM (Hochreiter and Schmidhuber,
1997) is adopted, where a cell cj
t is taken to re-
cord memory for aj
t , 一个
output gate oj
t , and a forget gate f j
t to control in-
formation flow from the inputs and to the output aj
t .
The inputs include representations of edges
that are connected to vj, where vj can be either

t . We use an input gate ij

22

the source or the target of the edge. We define
each edge as a triple (我, j, 我), where i and j are
indices of the source and target nodes, 重新指定-
主动地, and l is the edge label. xl
我,j is the repre-
sentation of edge (我, j, 我), detailed in Section 4.1.1.
The inputs for vj are grouped into incoming and
outgoing edges before being summed up:

φj =

ˆφj =

(西德:88)

xl
我,j

(我,j,我)∈Ein(j)
(西德:88)

(j,k,我)∈Eout(j)

xl

j,k

where Ein(j) and Eout(j) are the sets of incoming
and outgoing edges of vj, 分别.

In addition to edge inputs, our model also takes
the hidden states of the incoming and outgoing
neighbors of each node during a state transition.
Taking vj as an example, the states of its incoming
and outgoing neighbors are summed up before
being passed to the cell and gate nodes:

ψj =

ˆψj =

(西德:88)

人工智能

t−1

(我,j,我)∈Ein(j)
(西德:88)

ak

t−1.

(j,k,我)∈Eout(j)
Based on the above definitions of φj, ˆφj, ψj,
and ˆψj, the state transition from gt−1 to gt, 作为
represented by aj

t , can be defined as:
ˆφj + U iψj + ˆU i
ˆφj + U oψj + ˆU o
ˆφj + U f ψj + ˆU f
ˆφj + U uψj + ˆU u

ˆψj + 双)
ˆψj + bo)
ˆψj + bf )
ˆψj + bu)

t = σ(W iφj + ˆW i
ij
t = σ(W oφj + ˆW o
oj
t = σ(W f φj + ˆW f
f j
t = σ(W uφj + ˆW u
uj
西杰
t = f j
t−1 + ij
t (西德:12) 西杰
t (西德:12) uj
t (西德:12) tanh(西杰
t = oj
aj
t ),

t

John wants to go……möchtegehenmöchte

t , oj

t , and f j

where ij
t are the input, 输出, 并为-
get gates mentioned earlier. W x, ˆW x, U x, ˆU x,
bx, where x ∈ {我, 哦, F, 你}, are model parameters.
With this state transition mechanism, infor-
mation of each node is propagated to all
它是
neighboring nodes after each step. So after several
transition steps, each node state contains the in-
formation of a large context, including its an-
塞斯托尔, descendants, and siblings. For the worst
case where the input graph is a chain of nodes,
the maximum number of steps necessary for
information from one arbitrary node to reach
another is equal to the size of the graph. 我们
experiment with different numbers of transition
steps to study the effectiveness of global encoding.

4.1.1

Input Representation

The edges of an AMR graph contain labels,
which represent relations between the nodes they
connect, and are thus important for modeling the
图表. The representation for each edge (我, j, 我)
is defined as:

xl

我,j = W 4

(西德:16)

[el; evi]

(西德:17)

+ b4,

where el and ei are the embeddings of edge label
l and source node vi, 和W 4 and b4 are model
参数.

4.2

Incorporating AMR Information with a
Doubly Attentive Decoder

There is no one-to-one correspondence between
AMR nodes and source words. To incorporate
additional knowledge from an AMR graph, 一个
external attention model is adopted over the base-
the attention mem-
line model. 尤其,
ory from the AMR graph is the last graph state
gT = {aj
the contextual
vector based on the graph state is calculated as:

时间 }|vj ∈V . 此外,

˜(西德:15)米,i = ˜v

˜αm,i =

(西德:124)
2 tanh(W aai
经验值(˜(西德:15)米,我)
j=1 exp(˜(西德:15)米,j)

(西德:80)氮

.

时间 + ˜W ssm + ˜b2)

i=1 ˜αm,iai

W a, ˜W s, ˜v2, and ˜b2 are model parameters.
The new context vector ˜ζm is calculated via
(西德:80)氮
时间 . 最后, ˜ζm is incorporated into the
calculation of the output probability distribution
over the target vocabulary (previously defined in
方程 1):

P vocab = softmax(V 3[sm, ζm, ˜ζm] + b3).

(2)

23

5 Training

Given a set of training instances {(X (1), 是 (1)),
(X (2), 是 (2)), . . . }, we train our models using the
cross-entropy loss over each gold-standard target
sequence Y (j) = y(j)

2 , . . . , y(j)
中号 :

1 , y(j)

l = −

中号
(西德:88)

m=1

log p(y(j)

米 |y(j)

m−1, . . . , y(j)

1 , X (j); 我).

X (j) represents the inputs for the jth instance,
which is a source sentence for our baseline, 或者
a source sentence paired with an automatically
parsed AMR graph for our model. θ represents
the model parameters.

6 实验

We empirically investigate the effectiveness of
AMR for English-to-German translation.

6.1 Setup
Data We use the WMT163 English-to-German
dataset, which contains around 4.5 million sen-
tence pairs for training. 此外, we use a sub-
set of the full dataset (News Commentary v11
[NC-v11], containing around 243,000 句子
对) for development and additional experi-
评论. For all experiments, we use newstest2013
and newstest2016 as the development and test
套, 分别.

To preprocess the data,

the tokenizer from
Moses4 is used to tokenize both the English
and German sides. The training sentence pairs
where either side is longer than 50 words are
filtered out after tokenization. To deal with rare
and compound words, byte-pair encoding (BPE)5
(Sennrich et al., 2016) is applied to both sides.
尤其, 8,000 和 16,000 BPE merges are
used on the News Commentary v11 subset and
the full training set, 分别. On the other
手, JAMR6 (Flanigan et al., 2016) is adopted
to parse the English sentences into AMRs before
BPE is applied. The statistics of the training data
and vocabularies after preprocessing are shown in
Tables 1 和 2, 分别. For the experiments
with the full training set, we used the top 40K

3http://www.statmt.org/wmt16/translation-task.html.
4http://www.statmt.org/moses/.
5https://github.com/rsennrich/subword-nmt.
6https://github.com/jflanigan/jamr.

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数据集
NC-v11
Full
News2013
News2016

#Sent.
226K
4.17中号
3000
2999

#Tok. (EN)
6.4中号
109中号
84.7K
88.1K

#Tok. (DE)
7.3中号
118中号
95.6K
98.8K

桌子 1: Statistics of the dataset. Numbers of tokens
are after BPE processing.

数据集
NC-v11
Full

DE
AMR
EN
EN-ori
79.8K
8.4K 36.6K 8.3K
874K 19.3K 403K 19.1K

桌子 2: Sizes of vocabularies. EN-ori represents
original English sentences without BPE.

of the AMR vocabulary, which covers more than
99.6% of the training set.

For our dependency-based and SRL-based base-
线 (which will be introduced in Baseline Sys-
特姆斯), we choose Stanford CoreNLP Manning
等人. (2014) and IBM SIRE to generate depen-
dency trees and semantic roles, 分别. 自从
both dependency trees and semantic roles are
based on the original English sentences without
BPE, we used the top 100K frequent English words,
which cover roughly 99.0% of the training set.

Hyperparameters We use the Adam optimizer
(Kingma and Ba, 2014) with a learning rate of
0.0005. The batch size is set to 128. 之间
layers, we apply dropout with a probability of
0.2. The best model
is picked based on the
cross-entropy loss on the development set. 为了
model hyperparameters, we set the graph state
transition number to 10 according to development
实验. Each node takes information from
at most six neighbors. 蓝线 (Papineni et al.,
2002), TER (Snover et al., 2006), and Meteor
(Denkowski and Lavie, 2014) are used as the
metrics on cased and tokenized results.

For experiments with the NC-v11 subset, 两个都
word embedding and hidden vector sizes are set
到 500, and the models are trained for at most
30 纪元. For experiments with full training set,
the word embedding and hidden state sizes are set
到 800, and our models are trained for at most
10 纪元. For all systems, the word embeddings are
randomly initialized and updated during training.

Baseline Systems We compare our model with
the following systems. Seq2seq represents our
attention-based LSTM baseline (部分 3), 和

数字 4: DEV BLEU scores against transition steps for
the graph encoders. The state transition is not applicable
to Seq2seq, so we draw a dashed line to represent its
表现.

Dual2seq is our model, which takes both a se-
quential and a graph encoder and adopts a
doubly attentive decoder (部分 4). To show the
merit of AMR, we further contrast our model with
the following baselines, all of which adopt the
same doubly attentive framework with a BiLSTM
for encoding BPE-segmented source sentences:
Dual2seq-LinAMR uses another BiLSTM for
encoding linearized AMRs. Dual2seq-Dep and
Dual2seq-SRL adopt our graph recurrent net-
work to encode original source sentences with
dependency and semantic role annotations, 关于-
spectively. The three baselines are useful for
contrasting different methods of encoding AMRs
and for comparing AMRs with other popular
structural information for NMT.

We also compare with Transformer (Vaswani
等人。, 2017) and OpenNMT (Klein et al.,
2017), trained on the same dataset and with the
same set of hyperparameters as our systems. 在
特别的, we compare with Transformer-tf, 一
popular implementation7 of Transformer based
on TensorFlow, and we choose OpenNMT-tf, 一个
official release8 of OpenNMT implemented with
TensorFlow. For a fair comparison, OpenNMT-tf
has one layer for both the encoder and the decoder,
and Transformer-tf has the default configuration
(N= 6), but with parameters being shared among
different blocks.

6.2 Development Experiments

数字 4 shows the system performances as a
function of the number of graph state transitions

7https://github.com/Kyubyong/transformer.
8https://github.com/OpenNMT/OpenNMT-tf.

24

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系统

OpenNMT-tf
Transformer-tf
Seq2seq
Dual2seq-LinAMR
Duel2seq-SRL
Dual2seq-Dep
Dual2seq

NC-V11
BLEU TER↓ Meteor
0.3040
0.6902
15.1
0.3578
0.6647
17.1
0.3379
0.6695
16.0
0.3612
0.6530
17.3
0.3644
0.6591
17.2
0.3673
0.6516
17.8
0.3840
0.6305
19.2*

FULL
BLEU TER↓ Meteor
0.4225
0.5567
24.3
0.4344
0.5537
25.1
0.4258
0.5590
23.7
0.4246
0.5643
24.0
0.4223
0.5626
23.8
0.4328
0.5538
25.0
0.4376
0.5480
25.5*

桌子 3: TEST performance. NC-v11 represents training only with the NC-v11 data, while Full means using the
full training data. * represents significant (科恩, 2004) 结果 (p < 0.01) over Seq2seq. ↓ indicates the lower the better. on the development set. Dual2seq (self) represents our dual-attentive model, but its graph encoder encodes the source sentence, which is treated as a chain graph instead of an AMR graph. Compared with Dual2seq, Dual2seq (self) has the same number of parameters, but without semantic information from AMR. Due to hardware limitations, we do not perform an exhaustive search by evaluating every possible state transition number, but only transition numbers of 1, 5, 10, and 12. Our Dual2seq shows consistent performance improvement by increasing the transition number both from 1 to 5 (roughly +1.3 BLEU points) and from 5 to 10 (roughly 0.2 BLEU points). The former shows greater improvement than the latter, showing that the performance starts to converge after five transition steps. Further increasing transition steps from 10 to 12 gives a slight performance drop. We set the number of state transition steps to 10 for all experiments according to these observations. On the other hand, Dual2seq (self) shows only small improvements by increasing the state transition number, and it does not perform better than Seq2seq. Both results show that the performance gains of Dual2seq are not due to an increased number of parameters. 6.3 Main Results Table 3 shows the TEST BLEU, TER, and Meteor scores of all systems trained on the small-scale News Commentary v11 subset or the large-scale full set. Dual2seq is consistently better than the other systems under all three metrics, showing the effectiveness of the semantic information pro- vided by AMR. Especially, Dual2seq is better than both OpenNMT-tf and Transformer-tf. The it in that to Transformer recurrent graph state transition of Dual2seq is similar iteratively incorporates global information. The improve- ment of Dual2seq over Transformer-tf undoubt- edly comes from the use of AMRs, which provide complementary information to the textual inputs of the source language. In terms of BLEU score, Dual2seq is signif- icantly better than Seq2seq in both settings, which shows the effectiveness of incorporating AMR information. In particular, the improvement is much larger under the small-scale setting (+3.2 BLEU) than that under the large-scale setting (+1.7 BLEU). This is an evidence that structural and coarse-grained semantic information encoded in AMRs can be more helpful when training data are limited. When trained on the NC-v11 subset, the gap between Seq2seq and Dual2seq under Meteor (around 5 points) is greater than that under BLEU (around 3 points). Since Meteor gives partial credit to outputs that are synonyms to the reference or share identical stems, one possible explanation is that the structural information within AMRs helps to better translate the concepts from the source language, which may be synonyms or paronyms of reference words. As shown in the second group of Table 3, we further compare our model with other meth- ods of leveraging syntactic or semantic infor- mation. Dual2seq-LinAMR shows much worse performance than our model and only slightly outperforms the Seq2seq baseline. Both results show that simply taking advantage of the AMR concepts without their relations does not help very much. One reason may be that AMR concepts, such as John and Mary, also appear in the textual input, and thus are also encoded by the other 25 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u / t a c l / l a r t i c e - p d f / d o i / . 1 0 1 1 6 2 / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 1 9 2 3 2 6 8 / / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 p d . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 AMR Anno. BLEU 16.8 Automatic 17.5* Gold Table 4: BLEU scores of Dual2seq on The Little Prince data, when gold or automatic AMRs are available. (sequential) encoder.9 The gap between Dual2seq and Dual2seq-LinAMR comes from modeling the relations between concepts, which can be helpful for deciding target word order by enhancing the relations in source sentences. We conclude that properly encoding AMRs is necessary to make them useful. Encoding dependency trees instead of AMRs, Dual2seq-Dep shows a larger performance gap with our model (17.8 vs 19.2) on small-scale training data than on large-scale training data (25.0 vs 25.5). It is likely because AMRs are more useful on alleviating data sparsity than dependency trees, since words are lemmatized into unified concepts when parsing sentences into AMRs. For modeling long-range dependencies, AMRs have one crucial advantage over dependency trees by modeling concept-concept relations more directly. It is because AMRs drop function words; thus the distances between concepts are generally closer in AMRs than in dependency trees. Finally, Dual2seq-SRL is less effective than our model, because the annotations labeled by SRL are a subset of AMRs. We outperform Marcheggiani et al. (2018) on the same datasets, although our systems vary in a number of respects. When trained on the NC-v11 data, they show BLEU scores of 14.9 only with their BiLSTM baseline, 16.1 using additional dependency information, 15.6 using additional semantic roles, and 15.8 taking both as additional knowledge. Using Full as the training data, the scores become 23.3, 23.9, 24.5, and 24.9, respectively. In addition to the different seman- tic representation being used (AMR vs SRL), Marcheggiani et al. (2018) laid GCN (Kipf and Welling, 2017) layers on top of a bidirectional LSTM (BiLSTM) layer, and then concatenated layer outputs as the attention memory. GCN layers encode the semantic role information, while BiLSTM layers encode the input sentence in the source language, and the concatenated hidden Figure 5: Test BLEU score of various sentence lengths. states of both layers contain information from both semantic role and source sentence. For incorporating AMR, because there is no one- to-one word-to-node correspondence between a sentence and the corresponding AMR graph, we adopt separate attention models. Our BLEU scores are higher than theirs, but we cannot conclude that the advantage primarily comes from AMR. 6.4 Analysis Influence of AMR Parsing Accuracy To ana- lyze the influence of AMR parsing on our model performance, we further evaluate on a test set where the gold AMRs for the English side are available. In particular, we choose The Little Prince corpus, which contains 1,562 sentences with gold AMR annotations.10 Since there are no parallel German sentences, we take a German- version The Little Prince novel, and then perform manual sentence alignment. Taking the whole The Little Prince corpus as the test set, we measure the influence of AMR parsing accuracy by evaluating on the test set when gold or automatically parsed AMRs are available. The automatic AMRs are generated by parsing the English sentences with JAMR. Table 4 shows the BLEU scores of our Dual2seq model taking gold or automatic AMRs as inputs. Not listed in Table 4, Seq2seq achieves a BLEU score of 15.6, which is 1.2 BLEU points lower than using automatic AMR information. The improvement from automatic AMR to gold AMR (+0.7 BLEU) is significant, which shows the translation quality of our model can that be further improved with an increase of AMR parsing accuracy. However, the BLEU score with gold AMR does not indicate the potentially best 9AMRs can contain multi-word concepts, such as New York City, but they are in the textual input. 10https://amr.isi.edu/download.html. 26 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u / t a c l / l a r t i c e - p d f / d o i / . 1 0 1 1 6 2 / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 1 9 2 3 2 6 8 / / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 p d . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 lokalen Medien treffen seitdem im kroatischen Tovarnik st¨andig Polizeifahrzeuge mit neuen AMR: (s2 / say-01 :ARG0 (p3 / person :ARG1-of (h / have-rel-role-91 :ARG0 (p / person :ARG1-of (m2 / meet-03 :ARG0 (t / they) :ARG2 15) :mod (m / mutual)) :ARG2 (f / friend)) :name (n2 / name :op1 ‘‘Carla’’ :op2 ‘‘Hairston’’)) :ARG1 (a / and :op1 (p2 / person :name (n / name :op1 ‘‘Lamb’’))) :ARG2 (s / she) :time 20) Src: Carla Hairston said she was 15 and Lamb was 20 when they met through mutual friends . Ref: Carla Hairston sagte , sie war 15 und Lamm war 20 , als sie sich durch gemeinsame Freunde trafen . Dual2seq: Carla Hairston sagte , sie war 15 und Lamm war 20 , als sie sich durch gegenseitige Freunde trafen . Seq2seq: Carla Hirston sagte , sie sei 15 und Lamb 20 , als sie durch gegenseitige Freunde trafen . AMR: (s / say-01 :ARG0 (m / media :ARG1-of (l / local-02)) :ARG1 (c2 / come-01 :ARG1 (v / vehicle :mod (p / police)) :manner (c3 / constant) :path (a / across :op1 (r / refugee :mod (n2 / new))) :time (s2 / since :op1 (t3 / then)) :topic (t / thing :name (n / name :op1 (c / Croatian) :op2 (t2 / Tavarnik))))) Src: Since then , according to local media , police vehicles are constantly coming across new refugees in Croatian Tavarnik . Ref: Laut Fl¨uchtlingen ein . Dual2seq: Seither kommen die Polizeifahrzeuge nach den ¨ortlichen Medien st¨andig ¨uber neue Fl¨uchtlinge in Kroatische Tavarnik . Seq2seq: Seitdem sind die Polizeiautos nach den lokalen Medien st¨andig neue Fl¨uchtlinge in Kroatien Tavarnik . AMR: (b2 / breed-01 :ARG0 (p2 / person :ARG0-of (h / have-org-role-91 :ARG2 (s3 / scientist))) :ARG1 (w2 / worm) :ARG2 (s2 / system :ARG1-of (c / control-01 :ARG0 (b / burst-01 :ARG1 (w / wave :mod (s / sound))) :ARG1-of (p / possible-01)) :ARG1-of (n / nervous-01) :mod (m / modify-01 :ARG1 (g / genetics)))) Src: Scientists have bred worms with genetically modified nervous systems that can be controlled by bursts of sound waves . Ref: Wissenschaftler haben W¨urmer mit genetisch ver¨anderten Nervensystemen gez¨uchtet Ausbr¨uchen von Schallwellen gesteuert werden k¨onnen . Dual2seq: Die Wissenschaftler haben die W¨urmer mit genetisch ver¨anderten Nervensystemen gez¨uchtet, die durch Verbrennungen von Schallwellen kontrolliert werden k¨onnen . Seq2seq: Wissenschaftler haben sich mit genetisch modifiziertem Nervensystem gez¨uchtet Verbrennungen von Klangwellen gesteuert werden k¨onnen . , die durch , die von Figure 6: Sample system outputs. performance that our model can achieve. The primary reason is that even though the test set is coupled with gold AMRs, the training set is not. Trained with automatic AMRs, our model can learn to selectively trust the AMR structure. An additional reason is the domain difference: The Little Prince data are in the literary domain while our training data are in the news domain. There can be a further performance gain if the accuracy of the automatic AMRs on the training set is improved. Performance Based on Sentence Length We hypothesize that AMRs should be more beneficial for longer sentences: Those are likely to contain long-distance dependencies (such as discourse information and predicate–argument structures), which may not be adequately captured by linear chain RNNs but are directly encoded in AMRs. To test this, we partition the test data into four buckets by length and calculate BLEU for each of them. Figure 5 shows the performances of our model along with Dual2seq-Dep and Seq2seq. Our model outperforms the Seq2seq baseline rather uniformly across all buckets, except for the first one, where they are roughly equal. This may be surprising. On the one hand, Seq2seq fails to capture some dependencies for medium-length instances; on the other hand, AMR parses are more noisy for longer sentences, which prevents us from obtaining extra improvements with AMRs. Dependency trees have been proved useful in capturing long-range dependencies. Figure 5 shows that AMRs are comparatively better than dependency trees, especially on medium-length (21–30) sentences. The reason may be that the AMRs of medium-length sentences are much more accurate than longer sentences, and thus are better at capturing the relations between concepts. On the other hand, even though dependency trees are more accurate than AMRs, they still fail to represent relations for long sentences. It is likely because relations for longer sentences are more difficult to detect. Another possible reason is that dependency trees do not incorporate coreferences, which AMRs consider. 27 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u / t a c l / l a r t i c e - p d f / d o i / . 1 0 1 1 6 2 / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 1 9 2 3 2 6 8 / / t l a c _ a _ 0 0 2 5 2 p d . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Human Evaluation We further study the trans- lation quality of predicate–argument structures by conducting a human evaluation on 100 instances from the test set. In the evaluation, translations of both Dual2seq and Seq2seq, together with the source English sentence, the German reference, and an AMR are provided to a German-speaking annotator to decide which translation better captures the predicate–argument structures in the source sentence. To avoid annotation bias, translation results of both models are swapped for some instances, and the German annotator does not know which model each translation belongs to. The annotator either selects a ‘‘winner’’ or makes a ‘‘tie’’ decision, meaning that both results are equally good. Out of the 100 instances, Dual2seq wins on 46, Seq2seq wins on 23, and there is a tie on the remaining 31. Dual2seq wins on almost half of the instances, about twice as often as Seq2seq wins, indicating that AMRs help in translating the predicate–argument structures on the source side. Case Study The outputs of the baseline system (Seq2seq) and our final system (Dual2seq) are shown in Figure 6. In the first sentence, the AMR- based Dual2seq system correctly produces the reflexive pronoun sich as an argument of the verb trafen (meet), despite the distance between the words in the system output, and despite the fact that the equivalent English words each other do not appear in the system output. This is facilitated by the argument structure in the AMR analysis. In the second sentence, the AMR-based Dual2seq system produces an overly literal trans- lation for the English phrasal verb come across. incorrectly The Seq2seq translation, however, states that the police vehicles are refugees. The difficulty for the Seq2seq probably derives in part from the fact that are and coming are separated by the word constantly in the input, while the main predicate is clear in the AMR representation. In the third sentence, the Dual2seq system correctly translates the object of breed as worms, while the Seq2seq translation incorrectly states the scientists breed themselves. Here the that difficulty is likely the distance between the object and the verb in the German output, which causes the Seq2seq system to lose track of the correct input position to translate. 7 Conclusion We showed that AMRs can improve neural machine translation. In particular, the structural semantic information from AMRs can be com- plementary to the source textual input by intro- ducing a higher level of information abstraction. A graph recurrent network (GRN) is leveraged to encode AMR graphs without breaking the original graph structure, and a sequential LSTM is used to encode the source input. The decoder is a doubly attentive LSTM, taking the encoding results of both the graph encoder and the sequential encoder as attention memories. Experiments on a standard benchmark showed that AMRs are helpful regardless of the sentence length and are more effective than other more popular choices, such as dependency trees and semantic roles. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the action editor and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. We also thank Kai Song from Alibaba for suggestions on large-scale training, Parker Riley for comments on the draft, and Rochester’s CIRC for computational resources. 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