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The Reading Signatures of Agreement Attraction

Sol Lago1

, Carlos Acuña Fariña2, and Enrique Meseguer3

1Goethe University Frankfurt
2University of Santiago de Compostela
3University of La Laguna

关键词: agreement attraction, comprehension, cue-based retrieval, similarity-based interference,
西班牙语

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The comprehension of subject-verb agreement shows “attraction effects,” which reveal that
number computations can be derailed by nouns that are grammatically unlicensed to control
agreement with a verb. 然而, previous results are mixed regarding whether attraction
affects the processing of grammatical and ungrammatical sentences alike. In a large-sample
eye-tracking replication of Lago et al. (2015), we support this “grammaticality asymmetry”
by showing that the reading profiles associated with attraction depend on sentence
语法性. 在不合语法的句子中, attraction affected both fixation durations and
regressive eye-movements at the critical disagreeing verb. 同时, both grammatical and
ungrammatical sentences showed effects of the attractor noun number prior to the verb, 在里面
第一的- and second-pass reading of the subject phrase. This contrast suggests that attraction
effects in comprehension have at least two different sources: the first reflects verb-triggered
processes that operate mainly in ungrammatical sentences. The second source reflects
difficulties in the encoding of the subject phrase, which disturb comprehension in both
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences.

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介绍

Over the past 30 years agreement has been a popular topic in the literature on syntactic process-
英. This research started with a focus on the agreement errors made in sentence production
(Bock & 磨坊主, 1991) and later addressed how these errors are processed in comprehension
(Nicol et al., 1997). The interest in agreement is well-founded because it displays many features
that make language processing an exciting research area. 第一的, agreement often capitalizes on
the existence of a morphological component, whose productivity is known to differ crosslinguis-
抽搐地. 例如, whereas the English phrase “all the white broken dishes” contains one mor-
phological plural marker, there are five in its Spanish translation (“todos los platos blancos
rotos”). 更远, agreement can occur between nonadjacent elements, thus implicating the
use of working memory (Lewis & 瓦西什塔, 2005). 最后, agreement can be studied in produc-
的 (where processing goes from meaning to form) or comprehension (where form precedes
意义), and it can be evaluated with different methodologies: judgment tasks, self-paced
阅读, event-related potentials. Here we use the eye-tracking method to establish the reading
signatures of the comprehension of agreement in Spanish, a language with previous conflicting
发现.

引文: Lago, S。, Acuña Fariña, C。, &
信使, 乙. (2021). The Reading
Signatures of Agreement Attraction.
开放的心态: 认知方面的发现
科学, 5, 132–153. https://doi.org/10
.1162/opmi_a_00047

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00047

补充材料:
https://osf.io/f8bt7/

已收到: 14 一月 2021
公认: 5 八月 2021

利益争夺:
The authors declare no conflict
of interest.

通讯作者:
Sol Lago
sollago@em.uni-frankfurt.de

版权: © 2021
麻省理工学院
在知识共享下发布
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(抄送 4.0) 执照

麻省理工学院出版社

The Reading of Agreement Attraction

Lago et al.

In production, subject-verb agreement errors sometimes occur when a noun phrase con-
tains a plural modifier: speakers are more likely to accidentally produce a plural verb in sen-
tences like (1乙) 比 (1A), consistent with the idea that the plural modifier “attracts” the verb,
misleading agreement computations. These so-called attraction errors are crosslinguistically
robust in production, having been attested in languages like English, 西班牙语 ( Vigliocco
等人。, 1996), Italian ( Vigliocco et al., 1995), 法语 (Franck et al., 2002), Dutch (Hartsuiker
等人。, 2003), 和俄语 (Lorimor et al., 2008), 除其他外.

(1)

A. *The key to the cabinet are rusty from many years of disuse.
乙. *The key to the cabinets are rusty from many years of disuse.

A dominant model of these errors, known as “marking and morphing,” was originally de-
veloped as a production model (Eberhard et al., 2005). Marking and morphing maintains that
attraction arises during the computation of the number of the subject phrase. The plural feature
of the attractor noun cabinets affects this computation and renders it more likely to be plural in
(1乙) 比在 (1A). On this account, the subject phrase number is misconstrued, and the verb
merely receives the result of the previous miscalculation (Bock & Cutting, 1992; Bock &
艾伯哈德, 1993; Bock & 磨坊主, 1991; 艾伯哈德, 1997; Vigliocco et al., 1996; Vigliocco &
Nicol, 1998). One strength of the marking and morphing model is that it can capture a com-
monly observed pattern known as the number markedness effect: number mismatch effects
tend to be stronger when the head noun is singular and the attractor plural (as in 1b) 比
in the reversed arrangement (例如, “The keys to the cabinet”). According to the model, the lack
of a morphological singular marker reduces the contribution of the attractor to the subject
number computation.

同时, comprehension studies are more recent and originally sought to evaluate
whether the configurations responsible for attraction in production elicited processing differ-
ences in comprehension. But an important advantage of comprehension studies is that they
make it possible to explicitly manipulate the number of the verb triggering an agreement com-
putation: Whereas verb number is decided by participants in production, in comprehension
researchers can manipulate whether a plural or a singular verb appears after the subject
短语. 所以, comprehension designs include not only ungrammatical sentences such
作为 (1a–b) but also their grammatical counterparts (2a–b), in which the auxiliary verb is singular
and agrees in number with the subject head:

(2)

A. The key to the cabinet is rusty from many years of disuse.
乙. The key to the cabinets is rusty from many years of disuse.

A clear prediction of the marking and morphing model is that if attraction occurs in com-
prehension, it should affect both grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. 这是因为
both versions—and thus subject number computations—are identical prior to the (和)公克-
matical verb. 至关重要的是, the marking and morphing model predicts that attraction should yield
opposite effects depending on grammaticality. A plural attractor should facilitate the process-
ing of the ungrammatical verb: If participants are more likely to misconstrue the subject phrase
as plural in (1乙), they should sometimes fail to notice the agreement violation at the plural
auxiliary in (1乙) 相比 (1A), which has an unambiguously singular subject.

相比之下, a marking and morphing account predicts that a plural attractor should disrupt
the comprehension of a grammatical verb. If participants are more likely to misconstrue the
subject phrase as plural in (2乙), they should mistake the singular auxiliary for an agreement
violation. This should result in more processing difficulty in (2乙) 比在 (2A), which contains

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The Reading of Agreement Attraction

Lago et al.

an unambiguously singular subject. 简而言之, the marking and morphing model predicts that a
plural attractor should disrupt processing in a grammatical sentence like (1乙) but facilitate it in
an ungrammatical sentence like (2乙).

An alternative account, cue-based retrieval, makes different predictions (Engelmann et al.,
2019; Jäger et al., 2017; Jäger et al., 2020; Lewis & 瓦西什塔, 2005; for a recent overview, 看
Vasishth et al., 2019). While there are several computational implementations of cue-based re-
trieval, they all propose that attraction does not result from a faulty encoding of the subject
短语, but rather from similarity-based interference during the retrieval process initiated by a
动词. When a verb is encountered, speakers use the syntactic, semantic, and morphological fea-
tures of the verb as cues to retrieve an appropriate number controller from memory. 记忆
chunks corresponding to preceding items in the sentence are queried in parallel, and the chunk
with the most features matching the cues of the verb is the most likely to be retrieved.

In an ungrammatical sentence like (1乙), interference at retrieval is high if there is a plural
吸引子, because the subject head matches the syntactic cues of the verb but the plural at-
tractor matches the number cue. Due to this partial match, the plural attractor is sometimes
misretrieved, allowing comprehenders to license the verb in number and resulting in process-
ing facilitation: This effect is known as facilitatory interference. 相比之下, interference in
grammatical sentences is low with a plural attractor, because the subject head fully matches
the verb in syntactic and number cues while the attractor does not. 相比之下, retrieval in-
terference in grammatical sentences is higher with a singular attractor, as the number overlap
between both nouns increases competition at retrieval: This effect is known as inhibitory in-
terference. 简而言之, retrieval-based accounts predict that plural attractors should facilitate pro-
cessing in both grammatical and ungrammatical sentences like (1乙) 和 (2乙).

总结一下, both marking and morphing and retrieval-based accounts predict that plural
attractors should ease the processing of ungrammatical verbs. 然而, their predictions differ
for grammatical sentences. Marking and morphing predicts that plural attractors should cor-
rupt the representation of the subject phrase and disrupt the processing of grammatical verbs.
相比之下, retrieval-based accounts predict that plural attractors should reduce interference
at retrieval and facilitate the processing of grammatical verbs. 因此, the study of attraction
effects in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences is critical to arbitrate between different
accounts of attraction. Which of them is more consistent with previous results?

Attraction in Comprehension

很遗憾, attraction effects in comprehension have a mixed empirical record. The text
below summarizes four contested empirical patterns related to potential differences between
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. Our study was an attempt to clarify these patterns
through the use of a large participant sample and a paradigm—reading eye-tracking—with
good temporal resolution.

First Issue: The Grammaticality Asymmetry. Early work supported the predictions of the marking
and morphing account (Nicol et al., 1997; Pearlmutter et al., 1999). 例如, in two self-
paced reading and one eye-tracking study, Pearlmutter and colleagues (1999) showed that a
plural attractor created difficulty in grammatical sentences but eased difficulty in ungrammatical
那些. These effects appeared sometimes at the verb but more often at the word following it.
When ungrammatical verbs were preceded by plural attractors, participants showed shorter total
reading times and fewer first-pass regressions than when verbs were preceded by singular attrac-
托尔斯. But after grammatical verbs, the opposite was found, with longer total reading times and

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The Reading of Agreement Attraction

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more regressions with plural attractors. 所以, the authors concluded that the plural attractor
occasionally caused the subject to be misrepresented as plural in both production and compre-
hension. In the literature since then, accounts placing the origin of attraction in the equivocal
representation of the subject phrase are known as representational accounts (Eberhard et al.,
2005; Franck et al., 2002; Hammerly et al., 2019; Hartsuiker et al., 2001; Staub, 2009).

然而, while later studies largely replicated attraction effects in ungrammatical sentences,
they raised questions about their existence in grammatical sentences. Wagers and colleagues
(2009) were the first to reason that in grammatical sentences such as “The key to the cabinets
is …” there is a danger of misattributing attraction to an unrelated factor: the difficulty of
processing a plural noun per se. Plurals are morphologically and semantically more complex
than singulars, and noun number influences processing times (Lau et al., 2007; Lehtonen &
Laine, 2003; New et al., 2004). 所以, processing difficulty in grammatical sentences may
reflect the downstream effects of having previously encountered the plural noun “cabinets,”
rather than attraction. This confound is mitigated in ungrammatical sentences because attrac-
tion there emerges as faster reading times at the verb after a plural attractor, which is the
opposite than expected from a spillover effects of noun plurality.

Wagers and colleagues (2009) addressed the potential confound in two ways. 第一的, 他们
incorporated another word after the plural noun, in order to decrease the cost of attractor plu-
rality prior to the verb, 例如, “The key to the cabinets unsurprisingly was/were … .”
第二, they tested for attraction using object relative clauses (RC), in which the attractor did
not linearly intervene between the RC subject and the verb, 例如, “The cabinets that
the key opens/open … .” In several self-paced reading studies, they observed that attraction in
grammatical sentences was absent when either an adverb was added or a non-intervening
attractor was used. 重要的, attraction effects still occurred in ungrammatical sentences.
所以, it was proposed that in comprehension attraction occurred only in ungrammatical
句子, with little or no effect in grammatical ones. This pattern is known as the “grammat-
icality asymmetry.” In the factorial 2 × 2 designs often used in comprehension (resulting in the
four conditions 1a–b and 2a–b above), the asymmetry is operationalized as an interaction be-
tween the factors grammaticality and attractor number, which demonstrates quantitatively dif-
ferent attraction effects in grammatical vs. 不合语法的句子.

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现在, the empirical status of the grammaticality asymmetry is unclear, as shown by a
recent review by Hammerly et al. (2019). 一方面, studies that have measured num-
ber attraction effects in both grammatical and ungrammatical sentences have indeed found
significant effects more often in ungrammatical sentences: 91% 与. 38%, 分别.
然而, 仅有的 60% 的 45 studies that tested the grammaticality asymmetry found a sig-
nificant interaction between grammaticality and attractor number, which is the statistical dem-
onstration of the asymmetry (for discussion about the need of interactions to support claims
about asymmetric effects, see Gelman & Stern, 2006; Nieuwenhuis et al., 2011).

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Second Issue: Attraction in Grammatical Sentences. A second issue is that even when attraction is
observed in grammatical sentences, its direction is unclear. Consistent with Pearlmutter et al.
(1999), some studies have reported processing difficulty, consistent with representational ac-
计数 (Acuña-Fariña et al., 2014; Nicol et al., 1997; Patson & Husband, 2016). But many
studies have found the opposite: processing facilitation (Franck et al., 2015; Nicenboim
等人。, 2018; 史密斯等人。, 2021: 实验 1; Villata et al., 2018).

例如, Villata and colleagues (2018) conducted a self-paced reading study with 130
English participants. Their main analysis failed to show attraction effects online, 但是一个

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Lago et al.

supplementary analysis that included more trials (containing reading times up to 8,000 多发性硬化症)
found a marginal facilitatory attraction effect after the verb in grammatical sentences with
plural attractors. These findings align with those of Nicenboim et al. (2018), who observed
processing facilitation in grammatical sentences with plural attractors: in a sample of 184
German participants, the mean size of the effect at the verb was 9 ms and the range of effect
sizes deemed likely with 95% probability was [0, 18] ms—this is known as a 95% Bayesian
可信区间. This modest effect size is consistent with the estimate from a meta-analysis by
Jäger et al. (2017): 13 [2, 28] 多发性硬化症. 因此, large participant samples seem necessary to detect
attraction in grammatical sentences, although this is still uncommon in most studies on agree-
蒙特. Our large-sample study seeks to address this limitation.

最近几年, several researchers have suggested that read-
Third Issue: Encoding Interference.
ing time effects previously attributed to the retrieval triggered by a verb may instead be due to
a different cognitive process: encoding interference (Ness & Meltzer-Asscher, 2017; 史密斯
等人。, 2021; Villata et al., 2018; 维拉塔 & 弗兰克, 2020). Encoding interference arises when
two elements share similar features, which degrades their distinctiveness in memory (Oberauer
& Kliegl, 2006). Encoding interference reflects difficulty in the initial memory encoding of
项目, and thus it occurs prior to their retrieval by elements appearing later in a sentence,
例如, 动词. 所以, encoding interference effects should be observable prior to
the appearance of a verb (in number attraction studies) or in configurations in which the
manipulated feature(s) is not a retrieval cue.

The evidence for these two predictions is scarce and inconsistent in the attraction literature
( Jäger et al., 2015; 派克 & Konrad, 2020), but it is widespread in other grammatical
domains.1 For instance, Gordon and colleagues (2002) reported that the comprehension of
object relative clauses was facilitated when the subject and the object were of different types,
例如, a definite description and a pronoun vs. two definite descriptions: “The barber
that you / the lawyer admired.” The facilitation due to the pronoun was observed both at the
second noun phrase and at the relative clause verb. While the effect at the pronoun itself could
be due to lexical variables (pronouns are shorter and more frequent than definite descriptions),
the reading times at the verb more strongly suggest an encoding effect, as the distinction
between noun types is unlikely to be a retrieval cue (for similar findings see Barker et al.,
2001; Fedorenko et al., 2006; Gordon et al., 2002; Hofmeister & 瓦西什塔, 2014; Jäger
等人。, 2015; Kush et al., 2015).

In agreement attraction studies, some evidence of encoding interference has been provided
by Villata et al. (2018). In addition to the experiment reported above, the authors conducted a
second self-paced reading experiment that manipulated the gender (instead of the number) 的
attractor and target nouns in Italian object RCs, 例如, “The ballerinaFEM [那
waiterMASC / the waitressFEM has surprised] … .” Results from 167 Italian participants showed
that the participle verb was read more quickly when the attractor and target noun bore differ-
ent gender, as opposed to when they matched. The surprising aspect of this result is that past
participles in Italian object RCs do not instantiate gender agreement. 所以, gender could
not have possibly been used as a retrieval cue at the participle, disqualifying a retrieval-based
explanation and favoring an encoding interference-based one.

1 But note that number attraction effects that are consistent with encoding interference in grammatical sen-
tences have been attested in question comprehension measures in adult and developmental studies in German,
Swedish, Hebrew, 和意大利语 (Adani et al., 2010, 2014; Belletti et al., 2012; Jäger et al., 2015; 维拉塔 & 弗兰克,
2020). 然而, since attraction effects were only probed with offline measures, we do not discuss them in the
main text because we focus on processing effects.

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Encoding interference effects in attraction cannot be explained by marking and morphing
or by retrieval-based accounts. But they can be explained by a different framework, 自己-
organized sentence processing (SOSP), which is the third account relevant for the present
学习 (活动 & 狐狸, 1989; 史密斯等人。, 2018). As the dynamics of SOSP are quite com-
丛, here we offer only a brief summary focused on the two issues under discussion: attraction
effects in grammatical sentences and the grammaticality asymmetry (for a detailed account,
see Smith et al., 2021). In SOSP, encountering each word activates a treelet with semantic
and syntactic features, similar to memory chunks in cue-based retrieval (例如, +NP, −plural).
Activated treelets attempt to combine in all possible ways with other activated treelets, 和
strength of these connections grows over time. 至关重要的是, and in contrast with cue-based
恢复, these interactions happen continuously, rather than only at retrieval. This allows
SOSP to capture encoding interference effects.

例如, in the preamble “the key to the cabinets,” after the singular head noun “key”
is encountered, the subject node of the sentence initially gravitates toward [+NP, −plural]
(note that gravitation is a gradual process in which features increase their values from 0 朝向
a maximum of 1; for a useful visualization see Villata et al., 2018, figure 3). When the attractor
is encountered later, its treelet competes with the “key” treelet to attach to the subject node. 如果
the attractor is plural, competition is weak, because the attractor solely matches the subject
node in the +NP feature. But if the attractor is singular, it will match both features of the subject
node [+NP, −plural], increasing its competition with the head noun for attachment and delay-
ing processing both prior and during the processing of the verb. The same competition mech-
anism operates in ungrammatical sentences, with the only difference that in this case the
subject node is never a perfect match for the verb, regardless of which treelet attaches to it.
因此, SOSP predicts facilitation due to a plural attractor in both grammatical and ungrammat-
ical sentences and it explains encoding and retrieval interference through the same
机制.

The feature-competition property of SOSP also allows it to explain the grammaticality
asymmetry. 在语法句子中, all constraints align to form the correct parse, 这样
the attractor only has a weak influence. 相比之下, 在不合语法的句子中, it is impos-
sible to satisfy all the constraints and the system remains in a blended, intermediate state, 和
a benefit for the plural attractor condition due to reduced competition in the encoding of the
subject phrase. 简而言之, SOSP predicts processing facilitation in both grammatical and
ungrammatical sentences as well as the grammaticality asymmetry, similarly to retrieval-based
accounts and in contrast with the marking and morphing model. But in contrast to cue-based
恢复, SOSP can model encoding interference and explain attraction effects prior to the verb.
然而, studies to date have failed to find preverbal encoding interference effects, 这是
unexpected for SOSP. One potential explanation is that regions prior to the verb are seldom
analyzed in reading studies (and when they are, the results are confounded by the lexical effect
of attractor plurality, as shown by Wagers et al., 2009).

Fourth Issue: Differences Between Languages and Reading Paradigms. A final problem in evaluating
previous results lies in the scarcity and marked differences between studies. The review by
Hammerly et al. (2019) shows that only six languages have been tested to date, 和
English comprising almost 90% of the evidence. Previous studies also range from self-paced
reading and acceptability judgments to eye-tracking and event-related potentials. Considering
that an important issue is the timing of verb-driven attraction effects vs. attractor-driven plu-
rality effects, it is unfortunate that few studies have used the eye-tracking method (Dillon et al.,
2013; Jäger et al., 2020; 派克 & Phillips, 2017; Pearlmutter et al., 1999). Of these, the only

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non-English study was by Acuña-Fariña et al. (2014). Due to the speed and highly automatic
nature of eye-movements, eye-tracking is a useful tool for examining temporal profiles and it
also helps alleviate some concerns about response bias and task strategies that apply to judg-
ment and self-paced reading tasks (Hammerly et al., 2019; 维拉塔 & 弗兰克, 2020).

The Current Study

Our work seeks to clarify the empirical status of attraction effects in comprehension. We focus
on number attraction in Spanish, a language in which previous results are mixed and based on
only two studies. Acuña-Fariña and colleagues (2014) used eye-tracking to measure the pro-
cessing of prepositional phrase constructions in grammatical sentences such as “The name of
the boy(s) was German” (attractor bolded). The results were similar to those of Pearlmutter
等人. (1999), but attraction appeared immediately at the verb, which elicited more regressions
and longer regression-path and total reading times when following a plural attractor.
“Regression-path time” describes the reading times to a word prior to it being exited to the
正确的, including the rereading of prior words.

In a later study, Lago and colleagues (2015) conducted four self-paced reading experiments
that examined attraction effects in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. They used
object relative clauses such as “The note(s) [RC that the girl writes/*write in the class] … .”
As mentioned, object RCs avoid the confounding effects of plural morphology, 因为
plural attractor doesn’t immediately precede the verb and thus it is less likely to influence its
阅读. All experiments showed processing facilitation after ungrammatical verbs. 然而,
the results in grammatical sentences were inconsistent: while no attraction was seen in one
实验, which used thematic verbs such as “write,” processing difficulty was observed
with auxiliary verbs (“is going to write”): grammatical sentences with a plural attractor elicited
longer reading times than those with singular attractors, consistent with representational
accounts and with Acuña-Fariña et al. (2014). An additional experiment was performed to
follow up on this effect, but it failed to replicate the attraction effect in grammatical sentences.

合在一起, these findings offer conflicting answers about the existence and direction-
ality of attraction effects in Spanish grammatical sentences. 一方面, the attraction
effect in the study of Acuña-Fariña et al. (2014) may be attributed to the spillover effect of the
attractor plurality, which may have confounded reading times at the verb. 另一方面,
Lago et al. (2015) may have failed to observe this effect due to the limited temporal resolution
of the self-paced reading method, which does not allow participants to reread prior material.
This precludes the measurement of regressive eye movements and rereading patterns, two key
markers of attraction in eye-tracking studies.

To address these issues, we revisited the grammaticality asymmetry in Spanish and sought
to equalize testing conditions by using the same language, the same methodology, 和
same design and linguistic constructions. We also recruited the largest number of participants
that was feasible given our resources, motivated by previous findings that attraction effects in
grammatical sentences are small and may require large samples to be detectable. We used the
non-intervening configurations of Lago et al. (2015) to minimize spillover effects due to attrac-
tor plurality, but we employed an eye-tracking paradigm like Acuña-Fariña et al. (2014) 到
maximize the temporal resolution of our measures. We reasoned that eye-tracking should
allow us to more comprehensively test for attraction in grammatical sentences, while repli-
cating facilitation effects in ungrammatical ones. 更远, the use of non-intervening config-
urations allowed us to compare reading profiles at the region before the critical verb, the RC
主题区域.

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EYE-TRACKING EXPERIMENT

Our study was a large-sample eye-tracking replication of the first experiment of Lago et al.
(2015). The materials featured grammatical and ungrammatical sentences with a non-
intervening attractor noun (例如, “the notes”). An example is shown in (3) with the regions
of analysis marked by vertical bars. These regions comprised the relative clause verb and a
following 2–3-word adverbial (例如, “wrote in the class,” henceforth, verb/spillover region).
The region preceding the verb, consisting of the RC subject, was also analyzed to probe for
encoding interference effects (例如, “la chica,” RC subject region). This region was identical
across conditions, thus avoiding lexical differences between conditions due to noun plurality
( Wagers et al., 2009).

(3)

A. GRAMMATICAL, SINGULAR ATTRACTOR

La nota que | la chica | escribió | en la clase | alegró a su amiga.

乙. GRAMMATICAL, PLURAL ATTRACTOR

Las notas que | la chica | escribió | en la clase | alegraron a su amiga.

C. UNGRAMMATICAL, SINGULAR ATTRACTOR

*La nota que | la chica | escribieron | en la clase | alegró a su amiga.

d. UNGRAMMATICAL, PLURAL ATTRACTOR

*Las notas que | la chica | escribieron | en la clase | alegraron a su amiga.

Translation: The note(s) that the girl wrote.SG / *wrote.PL in the class cheered up her
friend.

Based on the attraction literature, we expected plural attractors to ease the processing of un-
grammatical verbs, as reported by Lago et al. (2015) in Spanish and as predicted by SOSP, 和
representational and retrieval-based accounts. Our goal was to properly assess the magnitude
of attraction effects in reading using a large participant sample and restricting our analysis to
those eye-tracking measures independently supported by previous studies (see Analysis).

此外, we sought to clarify the empirical record regarding the grammaticality asym-
metry and the direction of attraction effects in grammatical sentences. If the grammaticality
asymmetry holds in reading comprehension, we should obtain a statistical interaction between
the number of the attractor noun and the grammaticality of the sentence ( Wagers et al., 2009).
同时, attraction in grammatical sentences is critical to arbitrate between different ac-
计数. According to representational accounts, the plural attractor should disrupt the reading
of the grammatical verb in (3乙). According to retrieval-based accounts and SOSP, attraction
should facilitate it. We note that due to the different perspectives adopted by these accounts,
attraction effects in grammatical sentences are often reported inconsistently in the literature.
Studies within representational and SOSP approaches treat the plural attractor condition as the
condition of interest and compare it against the singular condition (which functions as a base-
line condition). 相比之下, retrieval-based studies treat the plural attractor condition as a
baseline because their focus is on the singular attractor condition, in which similarity-based
interference is expected in grammatical sentences. To avoid ambiguity, here we consistently
take the plural attractor condition as the condition of interest in both grammatical and ungram-
数学句子, always using the singular attractor conditions as baseline (Dillon et al.,
2013; Hammerly et al., 2019; Villata et al., 2018).

最后, we assessed whether encoding interference contribute to attraction effects. 这
ability to explain encoding interference separates SOSP from representational and cue-based
retrieval accounts. According to encoding interference one should be able to measure

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processing differences due to the attractor number prior to the verb. 然而, such effects
have not been consistently found in online attraction studies, despite being attested in
offline/untimed comprehension measures ( Jäger et al., 2015; Villata et al., 2018) and in the
comprehension of other linguistic phenomena (例如, Gordon et al., 2004; Kush et al., 2015).
Our study was optimized to detect encoding interference because the preverbal region was
identical across conditions (thus avoiding a confound with noun plurality) and because the
eye-tracking paradigm allowed measuring not only fixations but also regressive eye move-
评论, a key diagnostic of attraction in previous studies.

方法

参加者. Eye-movement data from 160 native speakers of Spanish were collected at the
University of La Laguna in Tenerife, 西班牙. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal
想象. Due to experimenter error, their chronological age was not stored, but all participants
were university students. Participants provided informed consent and received course credit or
payment for their participation. All procedures were in accordance with the Declaration of
Helsinki.

Materials. Materials were taken from Lago et al. (2015). Some of them were modified in order
to avoid uncommon expressions in Castilian Spanish like “lapicera” (‘pencil’), “aplicante”
(‘applicant’), “reporte” (‘report’), “manejó” (‘drove’), and “fallas” (‘faults’), as well as Latin
American geographical or cultural references, such as ‘the war of Paraguay,’ ‘the ancient
Mayas,’ or ‘the Chilean border.’ The sentences were shortened to 80 characters when neces-
sary to make them fit in one line of the display monitor.

The experimental sentences consisted of 48 sentence sets arranged in a 2 × 2 之内-
subjects design, with grammaticality (grammatical/ungrammatical) and attractor number (罪-
gular/plural) as factors. In the grammatical conditions, the relative clause (RC) subject and verb
were both singular (IE。, they agreed in number), while in the ungrammatical conditions the RC
subject was singular but the verb was plural. The RC verb was always in the simple past tense
and perfective aspect. The singular suffix for this tense-aspect combination is one character
长的 (例如, “escribi-ó,” ‘write.3sg’), while the plural suffix is 4 characters long (例如, “escribi-
eron,” ‘write.3pl’). The attractor noun was always inanimate while the RC subject head was
always animate.

这 48 sentence sets were distributed across four lists in a Latin square design, and were
结合 104 sentences from a different experiment (not reported here). These filler
sentences were all grammatical and consisted of simple subject-verb-object-adverbial sen-
tences like “The priest found the bishop in the morning.” This resulted in 15.8% 的
items being ungrammatical. Materials, 数据, 和分析代码可在 https 获取://osf
.io/f8bt7/.

程序. Eye movements were recorded by a video-based Eyelink 1000 Plus sampling at
1000 赫兹 (SR Research). Sentences were presented in lowercase on a monitor that displayed
最多 80 characters per line. When necessary, line breaks occurred after the critical region.
Participants were seated 73 cm away from the monitor, and three characters equaled 1 程度
of visual angle. Viewing was binocular but only the right eye was recorded.

Experimental and filler items were followed by yes/no comprehension questions to ensure
that participants were attentive. In the experimental items, the questions never referred to the
agreement dependency to avoid focusing participants’ attention on it. 因此, response accuracy
was not a measure of interest in the experimental items. Each session began with a calibration

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on a 9-point grid and recalibration between trials was conducted if necessary. 参加者
were instructed to read at a natural pace and answer the comprehension questions. They were
not informed that some sentences would contain grammatical errors. Three practice items
were presented. Before each trial, participants fixated on a marker above the first word of
the upcoming sentence. Upon fixation on this marker, the text appeared. The order of exper-
imental and filler items was randomized for each list. An entire experimental session lasted
approximately 30–45 min.

分析. Eye-tracking data were processed as follows. Fixations equal or shorter than 80 多发性硬化症
within one character of another fixation were merged. We also merged fixations shorter than
40 ms falling within three characters of another fixation. All remaining fixations below 80 多发性硬化症
or above 800 ms were removed. Trials in which a region was skipped in initial reading were
treated as missing data for that region.

Our analyses focused only on measures consistently found to show attraction in previous
学习, to minimize the number of multiple comparisons, which can increase Type I error
rates in eye-tracking (Godfroid & Hui, 2020; 从 马尔斯堡 & Angele, 2017). 之内
frequentists frameworks, this issue can be addressed by applying corrections, 例如
Bonferroni correction (Bonferroni, 1936). This is not possible in a Bayesian framework—
the framework used here—because the Bayesian approach is concerned with quantifying
the strength of evidence for a hypothesis given its prior probability, regardless of the number
of hypotheses under investigation (for discussion see Dienes, 2011). From a frequentist per-
观望的, this may render the results anticonservative and, 因此, they should be interpreted
with caution.

Based on previous studies, we analyzed the probability of first-pass regressions (Dillon
等人。, 2013; Jäger et al., 2020; Pearlmutter et al., 1999), regression-path (Acuña-Fariña
等人。, 2014; 派克 & Phillips, 2017), and total reading time (Acuña-Fariña et al., 2014;
Dillon et al., 2013; Jäger et al., 2020; 派克 & Phillips, 2017; Pearlmutter et al., 1999). 这
probability of first-pass regressions (also known as “regressions out”) is an early processing
measure denoting the probability of initiating a regression when first encountering a region.
相比之下, total time is a global measure that denotes the whole amount of time spent in a
地区, including rereading. 最后, regression-path time (also called “cumulative reading
time” or “go-past time”) describes the amount of time spent since first entering a region from
the left until leaving it to the right (including regressions to preceding regions).

Our critical region comprised the verb and spillover region, as shown in example (3).
Following Cunnings and Sturt (2018), we analyzed these regions jointly and included
REGION as a fixed effect. This procedure helps minimize the number of statistical tests per re-
只园, it allows evaluating potential timecourse differences between regions and it increases
power to observe small effects that may be nonsignificant at individual regions but neverthe-
less consistent across them. 然而, one drawback of the procedure is that pooling the
regions in the same model assumes equal variances in both regions. This is unlikely to be true
in our materials, in which the verb region comprised a single word, but the spillover region
comprised a 2–3-word adverbial. 因此, we conducted an additional analysis of both regions
separately. The results of this analysis were largely similar to those of the joint analysis, 和
the main difference concerning the first-pass regression measure (see the Supplemental
Materials).

In addition to the verb/spillover region, we examined the reading of the relative clause
主题, which appeared immediately before the verb: the RC subject region. If encoding

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interference occurs, the effect of the attractor number may already show up in the reading of
the RC subject, prior to the appearance of the verb. 因此, previous eye-tracking studies
have shown that the difficulty elicited by object RCs (in comparison to subject RCs) arises at
the noun phrase following the relative pronoun (Staub, 2010乙; Staub et al., 2017). 为了
实例, Staub (2010乙) showed that this noun phrase elicits more regressions and longer
regression-path times than the same phrase in a subject RC or in a complement clause.
所以, we examined first-pass regressions, regression-path, and total times in the RC
主题区域. We report this analysis in a separate section, Exploratory Analysis, 因为
our decision to perform it was taken during the analysis stage, after data collection took place.

Reading data were analyzed with mixed-effects logistic regression (first-pass regression
措施) and mixed-effects linear regression (regression-path and total time measures). 全部
models were fit in a Bayesian framework using the brms package in R (布尔克纳, 2017; 右
Development Core Team, 2020). Bayesian models are valuable because they combine prior
information with evidence from the data in order to obtain a probability distribution over the
plausible values of a parameter—the parameter’s posterior distribution. 因此, an experimental
effect can be quantified in terms of the likelihood of its possible values, which is more infor-
mative than a binary statement about whether the effect is significant, because it puts the focus
on determining an effect size and direction, along with its uncertainty (Cumming, 2014;
Kruschke & Liddell, 2018).

The procedure for fitting Bayesian models and assessing their convergence followed Jäger
等人. (2020). We used a hierarchical lognormal likelihood function to model the raw reading
times in milliseconds. This is equivalent to log-transforming the values and fitting a hierarchi-
cal linear model with a normal likelihood. All models assumed correlated varying intercepts
and slopes for items and participants for all predictors of interest and their interactions
(GRAMMATICALITY, ATTRACTOR NUMBER, and REGION; see Barr et al., 2013). 更远, since there were
two non-independent datapoints from each trial (例如, one observation from the verb and one
from the spillover region), we included a random intercept for trial, defined as each unique
participant-item pairing.2

Two models were computed to address our research questions. The first model used fixed
effects of GRAMMATICALITY, ATTRACTOR NUMBER, and REGION, as well as their interaction. Its goal
was to examine the existence of attraction and of the grammaticality asymmetry, which should
appear as an interaction between grammaticality and attractor number. Since ungrammatical
verbs were systematically longer than grammatical verbs, the factor REGION LENGTH was added
to the models of the verb/spillover region (centered and operationalized as the number of char-
acters per region).

The second model assessed the nested effects of attraction. Its goal was to estimate the
effect of attraction in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences separately. Nested models
were run for the three reading measures in the combined verb/spillover region, and for total
times in the RC subject region. Separate nested models for grammatical and ungrammatical
sentences were not run for first-pass regressions and regression-path times at the RC subject

2 We also tried to include a by-region slope for the trial random effect. But this led to several problems, 在-
cluding divergent transitions, an R-hat statistic higher than 1.01 and chains with a low estimated Bayesian
Fraction of Missing Information. Because the problem persisted after changing the optimization parameters
and doubling the number of iterations (Stan Development Team, 2020; https://mc-stan.org/misc/warnings
.html), we removed the by-region slopes for the models reported in this article.

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because these measures index processing prior to the appearance of the verb, when all
conditions were grammatical. 相比之下, total reading times include the second-pass reading
of the RC subject region after it was exited to the right, and thus they may be affected by the
grammaticality of the verb. In the nested model of the verb/spillover, REGION was always used
as a factor. In the nested model of the RC subject, which comprised a single identical region
across condition, neither REGION nor REGION LENGTH were used.

To avoid making strong a priori assumptions about possible effect sizes, we used mildly
informative priors (Gelman et al., 2014). 具体来说, we used a standard normal distribution
氮 (0, 1) for all fixed effects except the intercept, which had an N (0, 10) prior. The prior for the
random effects and the residual variance used a half-normal distribution N+ (0, 1), 因为
random effects and residual variance cannot be negative. Within the variance-covariance
matrices of the by-participant and by-item random effects, priors were defined for the corre-
lation matrices using a so-called Lewandowski-Kurowicka-Joe (LKJ) prior (莱万多夫斯基等人。,
2009). This prior has a parameter η, 哪个, when set to 2, has the regularizing effect of dis-
favoring extreme correlations.

All contrasts were sum-coded as ± 0.5, such that the model parameters reflected differences
between condition means. For the factor grammaticality (−0.5 grammatical / +0.5 ungrammat-
伊卡尔), a positive coefficient reflects a slowdown in ungrammatical sentences, 那是, 加工
disruption. For attractor number (−0.5 singular / +0.5 plural), a negative coefficient reflects a
speedup for sentences with a plural attractor. For the grammaticality × attractor number inter-
行动, a negative coefficient shows stronger attraction effects in ungrammatical than gram-
数学句子. For the factor region (−0.5 verb / +0.5 spillover), a positive coefficient
reflects longer reading times (or more regressions) in the spillover than in the verb region.

结果

Mean accuracy in the comprehension questions was 91.4% (标准差= 28%). For the reading data,
we focus on the effects of interest but include the full output of the main models in the
补充材料. The Supplemental Materials also contain the mean reading times
in all sentence regions, to provide a visual summary of how readers navigated the sentences
(Figure S1). We report the mean of the posterior probability distribution of each effect together
与一个 95% 可信区间 (肌酐), which represents the interval where it is 95% certain that
the true effect lies given the data and the model. For easier interpretability, reading measures
are back-transformed to their original scale in the text, but statistical analyses and inferences
are based on the untransformed model coefficients.

Verb and Spillover Region. The verb region was skipped on 2.7% of trials and the spillover
region on 0.56% 的考验. The reading patterns were consistent across measures (数字 1).
All measures showed main effects of grammaticality and attraction (数字 2). 具体来说, 和-
grammatical verbs disrupted processing by eliciting more regressions (posterior mean 6.1%,
95% 肌酐 [4.5, 7.7] %) and longer regression-path (55 [44, 67] 多发性硬化症) and total times (56 [43,
69] 多发性硬化症). 同时, plural attractors facilitated processing by reducing regressions (−1.2
[−2.2, −0.3] %), regression-path (−13 [−18, −7] 多发性硬化症), and total times (−10 [−17, −4] 多发性硬化症).
最后, the mean estimates of the grammaticality × attractor interaction were negative across
措施, consistent with larger attraction effects in ungrammatical than grammatical sen-
时态. 然而, although the credible intervals were clustered on negative values, 他们也
included zero and a few positive values: −1.3 [−3.2, 0.5] % 回归, −9 [−21, 1] 多发性硬化症
regression-path, and −10 [−23, 4] ms total time. 因此, these results are consistent with the

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数字 1.
error bars 95% confidence intervals calculated for each condition across participants and items.

Empirical reading measures for the verb (“wrote.SG/PL

”) and spillover region (“in the class”). Points show condition means and

claim of larger attraction effects in ungrammatical sentences—the grammaticality asymmetry—
but they do not conclusively support it.

The nested model assessed the size of attraction effects separately for ungrammatical and
grammatical verbs. Ungrammatical verbs showed facilitation due to attraction: verbs preceded
by plural attractors elicited fewer regressions (−1.9 [−3.1, −0.7] %) and faster regression-path
(−17 [−25, −9] 多发性硬化症) and total times (−15 [−25, −6] 多发性硬化症) than verbs preceded by singular attrac-
托尔斯. Grammatical verbs showed similar facilitatory patterns, but attraction effects were incon-
clusive because they spanned negative and positive values: −0.5 [−2, 0.9] % 回归, −8
[−16, 0] ms regression-path and −5 [−14, 4] ms total time.

Exploratory Analysis: RC Subject Region. The RC subject was skipped on average on 2.27% 的
试验. The earlier processing measures, first-pass regression and regression-path times, 没有
show a grammaticality effect, as expected since all conditions were grammatical prior to the
动词. But the number of the attractor noun modulated regression-path times: when the attractor
was plural, the RC subject—which was always singular—elicited shorter regression-path
次: −17 [−29, −5] 多发性硬化症. 因此, reading was facilitated when the attractor and the RC subject
bore different numbers, consistent with encoding interference (数字 3). A similar pattern was
observed in first-pass regressions, with fewer regressions after a plural attractor: −2.7 [−4.8,
−0.8] %. 然而, this effect should be taken with caution, because visual inspection of
Figure S1 (补充材料) revealed a similar pattern already in the preceding region.
所以, we can’t rule out that the encoding effect at the RC subject in first-pass regressions
was due to spillover from the previous region.

The RC subject showed a clear effect of grammaticality in total reading times (24 [11, 37] 多发性硬化症)
and also of the number of the attractor noun, with shorter total reading times when the attractor
and the target noun bore different numbers: −22 [−36, −8] 多发性硬化症. The nested comparisons showed
that the number mismatch between the attractor and target noun facilitated processing in un-
grammatical and grammatical sentences similarly: −19 [−36, −2] ms and −26 [−43, −8] 多发性硬化症,
分别 (数字 4).

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数字 2. Posterior estimates of the statistical model for first-pass regressions, regression-path, and total time measures in the
verb/spillover region. Red circles show posterior means and thicker horizontal lines show 95% credible intervals (thinner lines show 99%
credible intervals). Dashed vertical lines correspond to an effect size of zero. For the factor grammaticality, positive estimates reflect longer
reading times (or more regressions) 在不合语法的句子中. For the attractor factor, negative estimates reflect faster reading times (or fewer
回归) in plural attractor sentences. For the interaction, negative estimates suggest stronger attraction effects in ungrammatical than gram-
数学句子.

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GENERAL DISCUSSION

Our study examined the reading profiles of subject-verb agreement attraction in Spanish. 我们
were interested in whether attraction effects would differentially disrupt the comprehension of
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences, giving rise to the so-called grammaticality asym-
metry. 西班牙语, 据我们所知, only two studies have examined the reading profiles of
number attraction, and only one of them probed for the grammaticality asymmetry. 但他们的
direct comparison is challenging because they used different designs, grammatical construc-
系统蒸发散, and methods. Our study sought to equalize testing conditions by deploying the same
design and linguistic constructions as Lago et al. (2015) but using eye-tracking and a large
participant sample to increase the sensitivity of the measurements.

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数字 3. Empirical reading measures for the relative clause subject (“the girl”). Points show condition means and error bars 95% confi-
dence intervals calculated for each condition across participants and items.

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数字 4. Posterior estimates of the statistical model for first-pass regressions, regression-path, and total time measures in the
verb/spillover region. Red circles show posterior means and thicker horizontal lines show 95% credible intervals (thinner lines show 99%
credible intervals). Dashed vertical lines correspond to an effect size of zero. For the factor grammaticality, positive estimates reflect longer
reading times (or more regressions) 在不合语法的句子中. For the attractor factor, negative estimates reflect faster reading times (or fewer
回归) in plural attractor sentences. For the interaction, negative estimates suggest stronger attraction effects in ungrammatical than gram-
数学句子.

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Our results can be summarized as follows. 第一的, we replicated the finding that attraction
eases the reading of ungrammatical verbs, as predicted by all the accounts of attraction con-
sidered here: SOSP, representational, and retrieval-based accounts. Facilitatory effects were
observed in all reading measures: first-pass regressions, reading-path, and total times. 这些
attraction effects were small. 用于比较, the disruption due to an ungrammatical verb (作为
opposed to a grammatical one) increased regression-path and total reading times 50 ms on
average and the regression probability about 6%. 同时, attraction-induced facilitation
in ungrammatical sentences was on average 13 ms in reading-path times, 10 ms in total times,
and less than 2% in first-pass regressions. These modest sizes are not unexpected: 大的
sample studies can provide more realistic estimates of an effect size, as significant effects
in low-powered studies are often overestimates ( Vasishth et al., 2018).

Our remaining results concern the empirical effects with a mixed record in previous studies:
the grammaticality asymmetry and attraction effects in grammatical sentences. The direction of
attraction effects in grammatical sentences is crucial to arbitrate between processing models,
because both SOSP and retrieval-based predict facilitation with grammatical verbs, 尽管
representational accounts predict processing difficulty. 很遗憾, our analyses failed to
detect conclusive effects of attraction in grammatical sentences in the verb/spillover region.
然而, the mean estimates of the effects, as well as their credible intervals, consistently
suggested facilitation, with faster reading times and fewer regressions in the plural attractor
状况.

Based on these reading profiles, our view is that our results align with those of large-sample
studies and of a meta-analysis ( Jäger et al., 2017; Nicenboim et al., 2018; Villata et al., 2018)
and suggest that attraction in grammatical sentences is unlikely to emerge as processing diffi-
culty during reading. Under this view, the unexpected results in previous studies are those that
showed processing difficulty in grammatical sentences (Acuña-Fariña et al., 2014; Nicol et al.,
1997; Pearlmutter et al., 1999; Patson & Husband, 2016). Since all these studies used prepo-
sitional phrase constructions like “The key to the cabinet(s) is …,” a likely explanation is that
the spillover effects of noun plurality created the processing difficulty measured at the gram-
matical verb ( Wagers et al., 2009). We mitigated this confound by testing object RCs, 其中
the plural attractor did not immediately precede the verb. We believe that object RCs provide
a better way to diagnose attraction in grammatical sentences, but we acknowledge an alter-
native proposal that attraction effects in relative clauses may obey a different mechanism,
so-called “predication confusion” (Staub, 2009, 2010A). While we cannot rule out this possi-
能力, under this proposal it is surprising that prepositional phrases and object RCs often show
the same attraction effects. Experiments using other constructions (or languages in which
modifiers linearly precede their heads) may help resolve this issue.

Encoding Interference in Agreement Attraction

The novel finding from our study is that participants read the RC subject more easily when it
differed in number with the preceding attractor noun, and that this effect emerged prior to the
critical verb. In the plural attractor condition, regression-path times for the singular RC subject
were reduced on average 17 ms and regressions decreased about 3%. Total reading times,
which incorporate refixations to the RC subject after encountering the verb, showed equiva-
lent reductions in ungrammatical and grammatical sentences: 一般 20 和 25 多发性硬化症,
分别. 至关重要的是, facilitation effects were similarly sized in grammatical and ungrammat-
ical sentences at the RC subject, but they were numerically larger for ungrammatical sentences
at the verb/spillover region. This suggests that the two effects are unlikely to reflect the same

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过程. While the grammaticality asymmetry at the verb/spillover region is expected under
retrieval-based accounts, the symmetric effect at the RC subject requires an additional
explanation.

Regressions and regression-path time measures at the RC subject reflect processing prior to
the verb, and so the effect at the RC subject cannot be explained by retrieval-based accounts.
然而, one explanation that would still be consistent with a retrieval-based account is that
the effect at the RC subject reflected a parafoveal-on-foveal effect, such that the parafoveal
processing of the RC verb was complete enough to trigger the retrieval of an object and affect
fixations durations at the RC subject. We think that this is unlikely for two reasons. 第一的, 在下面
such an explanation—without additional assumptions—we should have also found a gram-
maticality effect at the RC subject. 第二, the existence of parafoveal-on-foveal effects in
experimental reading paradigms is uncertain (Schotter, 2018). Most of the supporting evidence
for these effects comes from corpus analyses, which lack tight experimental controls (肯尼迪
& Pynte, 2005; Kliegl et al., 2006). 同时, experimentally controlled studies have found
little to no evidence of parafoveal-on-foveal effects of the lexical properties of a following
word, such as lexical frequency, predictability, and plausibility (Angele et al., 2008; Angele
& 雷纳, 2011; Angele et al., 2015; Henderson & 费雷拉, 1993; Inhoff et al., 2000; 雷纳
等人。, 2007; Staub et al., 2007). 因此, we think that parafoveal-on-foveal effects are an unlikely
explanation for the reading patterns at the RC subject region.

反而, the effect at the RC subject is consistent with encoding interference. 之内
memory-based frameworks, encoding interference can be conceptualized as a feature over-
writing process (Nairne, 1990; Oberauer & Kliegl, 2006). The proposal is that shared features
increase the competition between two items, reducing their distinctiveness and thus their
memory activation. Encoding interference effects are common in psycholinguistics. 为了
实例, the comprehension of object relative clauses is facilitated when the subject and
object are of different types, 例如, a definite description and a pronoun vs. two definite
descriptions: The barber that you / the lawyer admired (Gordon et al., 2002; see also Barker
等人。, 2001; Fedorenko et al., 2006; Hofmeister & 瓦西什塔, 2014). 相似地, it has been
shown that participants read words within a cleft clause more slowly when they rhyme with
those of a currently maintained memory word list, and that this slowdown occurs prior to the
verb/retrieval site (Kush et al., 2015).

出奇, encoding interference is seldom found in online attraction studies, 尽管
being common in offline comprehension measures (Adani et al., 2010, 2014; Belletti et al.,
2012; Jäger et al., 2015; 派克 & Konrad, 2020; 维拉塔 & 弗兰克, 2020). Only two previous
self-paced reading studies reported effects consistent with encoding interference, but these
effects were found only when including very long reading times (typically considered outliers
in self-paced reading; Villata et al., 2018) or they were inconsistent across experiments (史密斯
等人。, 2021). One explanation for why we were able to detect encoding interference is that we
used an eye-tracking paradigm, which can capture difficulties in information encoding by
measuring regressive eye movements. 相比之下, self-paced reading studies don’t allow
participants to reread previous material, 和, 因此, encoding difficulty can only emerge as
excessively long reading times, which are likely to be discarded during analysis.

Of the theoretical accounts discussed here, only SOSP can capture encoding interference
effects. This is because SOSP describes the building of structure as a competition between
treelets with semantic and syntactic features, such that the treelets corresponding to the attrac-
tor and target noun compete to attach to the treelet corresponding to the RC subject node.
When the attractor and target noun overlap in features, competition for attachment is stronger,
which delays processing prior to the verb in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences alike.

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相比之下, current retrieval-based accounts cannot explain encoding interference, 在
either their activation-based (Lewis & 瓦西什塔, 2005) or direct access implementations
(Nicenboim & 瓦西什塔, 2018). This is because these accounts assume that interference is
due to an overlap between the retrieval cues of the verb and the features of previously encoded
items in memory. 所以, attraction can only emerge after the verb is encountered, 作为
verb initiates the retrieval process. 然而, the dynamics of encoding interference are similar
to that of another mechanism that is already part of the cue-based retrieval framework: the fan
影响 (Anderson et al., 2004; Lewis & 瓦西什塔, 2005). The fan effect penalizes the retrieval of
an item when the retrieval cue also matches other items, 那是, when a feature is shared by
two or more items. The critical difference is that the fan effect only operates at retrieval, 尽管
encoding interference affects the creation of items in memory ( Jäger et al., 2015).

As pointed out by Villata et al. (2018), incorporating a fan-like effect at encoding in a cue-
based retrieval framework creates new challenges. In current implementations, the activation
level of a newly created memory chunk does not depend on its feature overlap with other
chunks. This assumption would need to be changed to penalize items whose features overlap
with those of previously encoded items (例如, an “activation leveling” process, as suggested by
Villata et al., 2018). Notwithstanding the specific computational implementation, incorporating
a mechanism to generate encoding interference will be critical for future cue-based retrieval
implementations, if they are to appropriately capture the processing patterns attested in the
current study.

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Limitations and Open Questions

Our study has several limitations and it leaves some open questions. The first concerns our
research question about the existence of a grammaticality asymmetry, 那是, 可能性
that attraction affects grammatical and ungrammatical Spanish sentences differentially. 这
statistical correlate of the grammaticality asymmetry is an interaction between grammaticality
and attraction, but our interaction effects were not conclusive. This is puzzling, as all reading
measures showed quantitatively larger attraction effects in ungrammatical than grammatical
句子. 然而, the posterior probability distributions of the interaction in Figure 2 还
suggest a broad distribution for these effects, across a relatively large set of values. 这个印迪-
cates that an even more highly powered design might be needed to increase the precision of
the estimates in order to reliably detect the interaction.3 The estimates obtained here could be
used by future studies in Spanish to run power analyses in order to estimate the sample size
needed to detect such evidence.

第二, previous work has proposed that the grammaticality asymmetry can be explained
under a view of retrieval as a repair-based mechanism (Lago et al., 2015; Schlueter et al., 2019;
Wagers et al., 2009). The hypothesis was that participants only used memory retrieval to

3 Finding an interaction may have also been particularly challenging because attraction effects in our study
had the same direction in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. This may help explain why reports of the
grammaticality asymmetry are inconsistent across studies. As mentioned in the Introduction, previous studies
have coded comparisons in the grammatical sentences differently, some taking the plural attractor condition as a
baseline and others doing the reverse. With the former coding, attraction effects go in opposite directions in
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences, which maximizes the likelihood of finding a significant interaction.
We do not have a solution to this problem, as the alternative coding schemes are motivated by different theo-
retical accounts. Here we decided to use a coding scheme that reflected the linguistic manipulation in our ma-
terials because it seemed like a more theory-neutral way to describe the data.

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“repair” a sentence after a number violation had already been encountered. This repair-based
hypothesis predicts that reading disruptions due to ungrammaticality should temporally pre-
cede attraction effects, as readers should first detect an agreement violation and only afterward
experience attraction due to misretrieval. In our study, we did not find evidence of an earlier
onset of grammaticality vs. attraction effects. First-pass regressions, which index early process-
英, already showed evidence of both effects. 所以, our results fail to support a repair-
based view of retrieval. While such evidence might have emerged if other measures of early
processing had been examined, we limited ourselves to measures that have shown attraction in
previous studies, to reduce the number of multiple comparisons. 更远, the use of other early
processing measures would be unadvisable, since these are particularly sensitive to lexical
properties like word length and frequency (雷纳, 1998). In our study, ungrammatical verbs
were always plural and thus longer and less frequent than grammatical verbs. This problem is
common in attraction studies (Avetisyan et al., 2020; Dillon et al., 2013; Lago et al., 2015;
Schlueter et al., 2019). While we tried to minimize it by using region length as a predictor in
the analysis, future studies might consider a different manipulation of grammaticality to better
compare it with attraction effects.

最后, our finding of encoding interference at the RC subject was only obtained in an
exploratory analysis. This analysis was labeled “exploratory” because, even though encoding
effects are consistent with the SOSP account of attraction, we only thought of performing it
during the analysis stage, as we became acquainted with recent work on attraction in online
comprehension ( Villata et al., 2018; 史密斯等人。, 2021). 所以, it will be important for
future studies to replicate our finding, especially due to its implication for theoretical accounts
of attraction, either in terms of supporting an SOSP framework or in showing the need to
incorporate a feature overwriting process in cue-based retrieval models. 至关重要的是, our findings
suggest that to detect encoding interference effects in comprehension, the use of large partic-
ipant samples is advisable.

致谢

We thank Anna Laurinavichyute, Garrett Smith, and two anonymous reviewers for useful
feedback and discussions.

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作者贡献

SL: 概念化: 平等的; 数据管理: 带领; 形式分析: 配套; Writing –
original draft: 带领; 写作——复习 & 编辑: 带领. CAF: 概念化: 平等的;
Writing – original draft: 平等的; 写作——复习 & 编辑: 平等的. EM: 概念化:
平等的; 数据管理: 平等的; 形式分析: 平等的; 调查: 带领; 资源: 带领;
Writing – original draft: 平等的; 写作——复习 & 编辑: 平等的.

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