Presidential Essay

James W. 格思里

Department of

领导, 政策

and Organization

Peabody College of

Vanderbilt

大学

230 Appleton Place

Nashville, TN

37203-5721

电子邮件:

jwgxiii@sbcglobal.net

“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE:

HOW IT DIFFERS FROM THE

“OLD” AND THE ANALYTIC AND

DATA COLLECTION CHANGES IT

IMPLIES

抽象的
This article contends that a new concept of education
ﬁnance has emerged in response to substantial alter-
ations in the U.S. education policy environment. 这
major distinction between modern and old is that the
latter was principally concerned with arrangements of
inputs in K–12 schooling. The former, modern-era edu-
cation ﬁnance, is concerned with relationships of inputs
to schooling outcomes. This modern education ﬁnance
paradigm provokes a need for (1) research and data
extending into the operations of education itself, 不是
just ﬁnancing; (2) far more ﬁne-grained information
than now exists regarding education inputs, 通过-
看跌期权, and outputs; (3) cohesive concepts for linking
these data elements with one another to better under-
stand their interactions; (4) an expanded set of outcome
措施; (5) information about how previously public
sector, dominant-education offerings interact with ex-
panded private market conditions; 和 (6) better linkage
between K–12 and postsecondary data and analyses.

C(西德:1) 2006 American Education Finance Association

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“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE

介绍
By what means can student academic performance be elevated and what will
it cost to accomplish this purpose? How can achievement gaps between lower-
and higher-income students be narrowed, and what education ﬁnance and
education data collection implications accompany this objective? Which in-
structional techniques are most cost effective? To what extent can market
军队, competition, pay-for-performance incentives, and enhanced provision
of schooling elevate student performance and client satisfaction? What com-
binations of individual training and incentives are most likely to lead to higher
teacher productivity? Can elementary and secondary education be better in-
tegrated with postsecondary schooling, and do ﬁnancing arrangements offer
solutions for linking these disparate systems?

These questions illustrate the evolving education policy climate and emerg-
ing challenges contained in modern K–12 education ﬁnance. Scholarly issues
and analytic techniques related to contemporary policy challenges are substan-
tially different from those dominating America’s education ﬁnance research
agendas even two decades ago. The post–World War II concern of most educa-
tion ﬁnance specialists had been directed toward problems of resource input,
particularly issues of resource equality. Until the late 1980s, this conceptual
shift in education ﬁnance, to issues of resource sufﬁciency and efﬁciency and
the consequences of market competition, exhibited an evolutionary trajectory.
然而, during the late twentieth century, intensiﬁed public expectations
for elementary and secondary education achievement, judicial interventions
in state school ﬁnancing, new state school aid programs addressing issues of
“adequacy,” the federally enacted No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), an emer-
gence of a more rigorous scientiﬁc paradigm in education research generally,
and evolution of strategies for effective school operation have accelerated the
rate at which modern is superseding old in education ﬁnance. Albeit not
quite an abrupt revolution, this transformation has occurred with remarkable
速度.

MODERN EDUCATION FINANCE: WHAT IS NEW AND HOW THE NEW
DIFFERS FROM THE OLD
There is no clear chronological separation between modern and old where edu-
cation ﬁnance is concerned. Much that can be characterized as old persists and
is unlikely to disappear anytime soon. 例如, early-twentieth-century
funding mechanisms and pupil weighting procedures developed by George
D. Strayer, Robert M. Haig, and Paul R. Mort are near mirror images within
today’s current performance policy paradigm. 反过来, what can be claimed
to be modern has existed in nascent form for a long time. Charles S. Benson’s

EDUCATION FINANCE AND POLICY

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James W. 格思里

桌子 1 Summary Comparison of “Old” and “Modern” Education Finance

Issue/Dimension

“Old” Education Finance

Value orientation

equity (distributional and

Decision dynamic

taxpayer)

政治的

Distribution objective

per pupil parity

Relative concern for pupil

最小的

“performance”

Equity concern for tax sources

高的

and mechanisms

Linkage to instructional

Minimal

成分

Reliance upon evidentiary

最小的

“Modern” Education
Finance

efﬁciency/productivity
(accountability)

rational and political

per pupil sufﬁciency and

performance motivation

高的

reduced

desired

基础

Policy system oversight

School district incentive

scrutiny of overall revenue

amount and distributional
equity

scrutiny of overall revenue
金额, distributional
equity, and outcomes

maximize income via input
manipulation (enrollment
census and student
分类)

maximize income via input

manipulation and outcome
maximization

student, classroom, 学校,
区, 状态, and nation

Data orientation

state and local districts

Analytic orientation

resource comparisons

resource and performance

相互作用

The Cheerful Prospect: A Statement of the Future of American Education (1965)
proposed integrating vocational and academic track education in an effort to
eliminate educational disparity and improve efﬁciency. Though his writing did
not initially leverage reform, it was acknowledged as pivotal in the federal en-
actment of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education
Act (1990) and School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994).

This section presents a brief snapshot of signiﬁcant conditions that fostered
modern K-12 ﬁnance’s emergence into policy’s prime time. 桌子 1 提供
a summary characterizing modern and old education ﬁnance across eleven
comparison dimensions to which this article later returns.

The release of A Nation at Risk (NCEE 1983) triggered a sustained period of
public concern for and policy-maker attention to higher levels of performance
for public schools in the United States. 例如, Bill Honig’s election in
1984 as California’s highly visible Superintendent of Public Instruction sent an
electoral signal regarding signiﬁcance of this policy shift. During his campaign
Honig claimed that his incumbent opponent had concentrated on access and
equity at the price of excellence and higher pupil performance. Honig stayed

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“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE

true to his campaign promises upon election to ofﬁce and advocated enactment
of elevated pupil performance standards.

Five years thereafter, a highly publicized 1989 summit conference of Amer-
ica’s governors in Charlottesville, 弗吉尼亚州, organized by President George
H. 瓦. 衬套, resulted in a host of new national and state-level policies. 为了
例子, a set of six national goals for educational improvement, later ex-
panded to eight goals during the Clinton administration, were incorporated
into legislation by Congress, while heightened performance expectations for
学生, accompanying accountability provisions for schools and districts,
and state student achievement testing programs proliferated at the state
等级.

Post–A Nation at Risk reforms were generally of two kinds. One was height-
ened expectations including intensiﬁed high school requirements, reduction
of high school electives, and more stringent college admission standards. 这
was an era of student motivation efforts such as “No Pass, No Play” and “No
Graduate, No Drive” state statutes (Webb, Covington, and Guthrie 1993). 在
添加, more money ﬂowed to elevate teacher salaries.

The aftermath of the 1989 Charlottesville summit marked a second “post-
A Nation At Risk” education reform phase. Initial efforts at heightened rigor
and spending had resulted in only minimal achievement gains, as indicated
by trends in average National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
scores for the nation in reading, mathematics, and science (坎贝尔, Hombo,
and Mazzeo 2000). Emergence of systemic reform, sometimes referred to as
standards-based reform, outlined in a seminal article by Smith and O’Day
(1991), signaled a second phase. Smith and O’Day’s ideas further propelled
policy proposals for aligning components of the educational system, linking
标准, statewide standardized student achievement tests, teacher licens-
ing requirements, instructional materials, professional development, 状态
capacity-building subsidies, performance ratings and school report cards,
and positive and negative sanctions for achievement progress. These initia-
tives not only became the hallmark of the Clinton administration’s educa-
tional policies (Vinovski 1996) but also facilitated a new understanding that
school revenue generation and distribution arrangements were something of
an operating precondition, separated from the purposes of schooling under
the old education ﬁnance paradigm. The emerging understanding empha-
sized the need to forge a link between these revenue matters and schooling
结果.

Enactment of NCLB in 2001 solidiﬁed concern for schooling outcomes,
rather than the prior era’s assumed quality criterion of resource inputs. NCLB
poignantly signiﬁes the outcome-oriented production model underpinning
modern education ﬁnance.

EDUCATION FINANCE AND POLICY

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James W. 格思里

Judicial action has also dramatically contributed to the emergence of
“modern” education ﬁnance. Following Rose v. Council for Better Education
(1989) in Kentucky, 例如, judicial decisions such as Campbell in
Wyoming (1995), Campaign for Fiscal Equity v. 状态 (2003) in New York,
Lakeview School District v. Huckabee (2001) in Arkansas, and West Orange-Cove
v. 纳尔逊 (2001) in Texas have reinforced government’s obligation to provide
revenues sufﬁcient to ensure that students have an opportunity to achieve ele-
vated standards. The entire revenue sufﬁciency movement, made possible by
the advent of state-promulgated curriculum standards or learning standards,
has virtually replaced old-style, dollar-for-dollar parity concerns as an equity
basis for judicial intervention. 这 1999 National Research Council Report,
“Making Money Matter: Financing America’s Schools,” acknowledged this
shift by referring to the adequacy movement in litigation as “Equity II” (Ladd
and Hansen 1999; Minorini and Sugarman 1999a, 1999乙).

桌子 2 summarizes content characteristics of signiﬁcant court cases for
the time period encompassing the transition from the old education ﬁnance
to the modern. From trial testimony and judicial decision content analysis one
can see how expansive both the consideration of courts and expectations for
education ﬁnance have become.

The transition from prior considerations of taxpayer and per pupil spend-
ing equity to a new focus on resource sufﬁciency and system efﬁciency has
not always been smooth. Court opinions and legislative expectations often
outstrip the current capacity of social science research to deliver satisfying re-
sponses to policy questions (格思里 2004). 此外, whereas education
ﬁnance experts once needed to know only about taxation and distribution for-
mulas, now they are expected to be conversant regarding matters as diverse as
achievement testing, teacher qualiﬁcation, student disabilities, links between
poverty and academic performance, historical evolution of education and ed-
ucation ﬁnance, remedial instruction, class size effects, school organization,
instructional strategies, performance incentives, privatization and outsourc-
英, 规模经济, cost function analysis, school governance, 程序
评估, leadership effectiveness, and personnel deployment.

INSIDE THE MODERN EDUCATION FINANCE REFORM PARADIGM
Education ﬁnancing is now a principal instrument for mediating pursuit of
educational policy and has moved from the periphery of policy-maker concern
to a far more central role. This section describes the two principal school im-
provement or education reform strategies—systemic alignment and economic
dynamics—that have emerged in the past decades to build a foundation for
how the emerging modern education ﬁnance has begun to conceptualize link-
ing resources to elevated student academic performance.

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桌子 2 A Quarter-Century Selection of Signiﬁcant “Old” and “Modern” Education Finance Court Cases Classiﬁed by Complaint, Trial Testimony, and Decision Content

Court Case/
Schooling
Facet

Per pupil $ parity Taxpayer equity “Adequate” $ 资源

“At-risk” funding

Class size

Teacher salaries

Teacher qualiﬁcation

Curriculum standards

Scale economies

Preschool availability

Student achievement

罗宾逊
(新泽西州)
1969

Serrano
(CA)
1972

Seattle
(WA)
1978

Edgewood
(TX)
1989

Rose
(KY)
1989

坎贝尔
(WY)
1994

CFE
(纽约)
2000

West Orange
(TX)
2004

Lakeview
(AR)
2004

Abbeville
(SC)
2005

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James W. 格思里

Systems Alignment

One major reform strategy hinges upon the presence of measurable academic
expectations or curriculum standards and an assortment of instructional and
accountability components aligned in pursuit of these standards. The produc-
tion components in this model involve dimensions such as educator time,
class size (a dimension of teacher time spent with students), instructional
materials and textbooks, student achievement testing, time on learning tasks,
preservice teacher training, parent and community engagement, 领导
训练, personnel and institutional performance reports, professional devel-
选项, in-school peer group characteristics, and in-school and out-of-school
extracurricular activities for students.

This systems-alignment strategy presumes that much regarding good in-
struction is already known and that appropriate coherence between various
instructional components can result in higher levels of student academic
学习. 还, components of this strategy lend themselves to being oper-
ationalized into an instructional alignment measure that can be considered
either as a dependent variable, in an effort to discern policy system condi-
tions providing the greatest or best alignment, or an independent variable, 到
determine alignment consequences for pupil performance.1

Economic Incentives

The other principal reform model takes schooling and instruction to be a
“black box,” perhaps one that is currently impenetrable or unknowable. 三月-
ket and economic incentive advocates contend that a speciﬁcation of expected
outcomes and an appropriate system for measuring and sanctioning school
success in producing desired student outcomes will productively guide ac-
tions of those inside the black box. Under such assumptions it is less nec-
essary than in a systems-alignment strategy to understand the nature of
throughputs. 然而, it is still crucial to understand the nature of out-
看跌期权. It is also more important to understand interactions of various mar-
ket components (例如, supply; consumer information; performance incentives
for students, 教师, 学校, and districts; competition effects; and market
规定) in the economic-incentive model than in the systems-alignment
模型.

In policy circles competition is often posed as an alternative reform strategy
since market dependence is seen as a major incentive. The ability of clients to
seek different schools, presumably schools more consistent with personal pref-
erences, is taken to be a market incentive to motivate instructional providers.

For more information on means for measuring “alignment” and the metrics involved see Porter
(2002).

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“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE

在本质上, providers either perform to clients’ expectations or lose market
share and accompanying resources.

While it is important to distinguish between these two intervention models
(the sets of tools used to determine their effectiveness overlap partially, 但不是
完全地), a reader should not gain a misimpression that the two models
are mutually exclusive. There are ways by which they can be combined. 为了
例子, an operator of a private school is presumably interested in having
instructional components aligned in order to be effective. Although a systemic
alignment strategy does not preclude reliance upon client choice systems or
performance awards and punishments for teachers or schools in the public
sector, systemic-alignment advocates seldom recommend performance incen-
tives for students, 教师, 学校, or school districts.

RESEARCH AND DATA COLLECTION IN A MODERN EDUCATION
FINANCE ERA
The fulﬁllment of modern education ﬁnance’s quest for elevated outcomes,
pursuit of higher academic standards, means for enhancing instruction, 在-
centives for performance, and desire for greater cost-effectiveness depends
upon superior understanding of research and data collection. 这需要
scholars to be capable of not only integrating new and old education ﬁnance
concepts but also forging new paths of inquiry to generate more valid and
reliable conclusions and guide twenty-ﬁrst century policy-making decisions.

Fusing Modern and Old in Research

There are three categories of recurring research and policy issues that carry
over in part from the old and still stem from modern. These categories, 和
the data needs they portend, are described below.

Equity

Even if the early-twenty-ﬁrst-century policy pendulum has swung somewhat
away from equity and more forcefully toward sufﬁciency and efﬁciency matters,
parity issues remain. There continue to be interests among advocates and ana-
lysts in knowing what schools and districts spend per pupil and what similarly
situated taxpayers and various levels of government and revenue sources con-
tribute toward school spending. 还, revenue and spending ﬁgures need to be
informed by inﬂation, overtime, and by regional cost differences. Classiﬁcation
of data by student characteristics such as household income level, 种族,
种族, language proﬁciency, 失能, 年级水平, district type, and school
类型, public or private, all continue as action and policy agenda items.

EDUCATION FINANCE AND POLICY

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James W. 格思里

Adequacy

Discerning the extent to which a ﬁnance system provides sufﬁcient opportunity
for students to acquire speciﬁed schooling objectives, “adequacy” requires ac-
cess to information regarding student performance, legislated arrangements,
and system resources. Student performance measures should be manifold,
including academic achievement, participation and persistence, and behavior
(discipline). Per pupil spending can be attributed by district, but attribution
by school is even better. (将来, it will probably become important
to have per pupil budgets and accounting.) Also needed are data regarding
characteristics of pupils (种族, household income, language proﬁciency, 和
失能), regional or geographic cost differences, teacher salary informa-
的, administrative expenditures, instructional supply spending, and a host
of other expenditure objects. Measures of school facilities also are needed. Fi-
nally, determining “adequacy” also necessitates information regarding system
arrangements such as school size and remoteness and state regulations for ac-
tivities such as teacher licensing and pupil, 学校, and district accountability.

Efﬁciency and Productivity

Determining what instructional programs and arrangements are effective and,
further still, those that are cost-effective requires an ability to link data sets
across performance and resources. Measures of pupil performance must be
associated with resources such as a deﬁned program (例如, reading or mathe-
数学), teacher time, instructional materials, staff development, school and
class size, pupil–professional ratios, teacher characteristics, students’ socioe-
conomic status and other relevant personal and household characteristics,
and bounded program descriptions (expectations, pedagogy, and content) 那
measurably separate one instructional format from another.

Modern Education Finance Research and Data Collection Needs

Principal differences in data collection and research demands, when contrasted
with conventional ﬁnance predecessors, occur on ﬁve dimensions. The graphic
model in Figure 1 depicts education system processes and highlights new data
items that need to be unraveled to promote a more ﬁne-grained understanding
of schools within the modern education ﬁnance paradigm. Space is insufﬁcient
here to undertake an exhaustive description of each of these dimensions;
然而, 图中 1 we have illustrated each.

Knowledge of Production

More complete modeling techniques and enhanced knowledge of instruc-
的, 操作, and organizational strategies are needed to realize modern

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“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE

数字 1

Expansion
of Outcome
Measures

知识
的
Production

“Modern”
教育
Finance
研究
Paradigm

Expansion
of Units of
分析

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知识
of Market
Dynamics

知识
of Systemic
Alignment

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Needed Components and Interactions for “Modern” Education Finance Research Paradigm

education ﬁnance’s call for understanding relationships between educational
输入, throughputs, and outputs. For many years scholars have relied on tra-
ditional education production forms that depend on repurposed production
attributes from the private manufacturing sector, where known ratios of inputs
to outputs exist (看, 例如, Cohn and Geske 1990; Betts 1996; Monk
and Rice 1999). Education is a multiproduct enterprise where technology used
to produce different attributes may not permit aggregation, thus necessitat-
ing that each outcome has a separate or individual production function. 作为
一个结果, complexity of “real” education production function is at the mercy
of the spectrum of characteristics embedded in the “raw material” (学生)
available to “producers” (学校).

EDUCATION FINANCE AND POLICY

James W. 格思里

It is probable that a schooling production function is highly individu-
alized and presently resides in an unstable black box comprising multiple
idiosyncratic interactions between, and characteristics possessed by, individ-
ual teachers and individual students. As Guthrie and Rothstein (1999) 著名的,
models lacking any recognition of education-relevant production components
that can be reasonably presumed or empirically proved to enhance students’
技能, 知识, and capacity development can tell us only what resource
levels were generally associated with acceptable achievement (with inefﬁcient
practices removed, to the extent known), not what resource level would be
必要的, if used efﬁciently, for this outcome.

Expanded Outcome Measures

Policy relevant outcome measures depend crucially upon one or many quantiﬁ-
able variables or proxies closely paralleling and encompassing characteristics
embodied in a desired production outcome. A great majority of studies, 为了
例子, rely on some combination of standardized achievement test scores
as an outcome measure. 然而, test scores are “potentially noisy and un-
stable measures” (Ballou 2002, p. 12) that may catch only a narrow swath of
education system purpose.

Most state statutes list tens of other desired cognitive and noncognitive
结果. 这些包括, 例如, performance dimensions such as citi-
禅宗, 音乐, 艺术, physical ﬁtness, patriotism, personal honesty, and punc-
tuality. Though recent research is beginning to examine causal relationships
between educational attainment and such education-related outcomes as cit-
主权 (Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos 2004; Dee and Levine 2004),
standardized test scores are not understood sufﬁciently to be assumed appro-
priate for capturing our education system’s whole intent when inﬂuencing
contemporary policy decisions. 因此, it is imperative that more complete
outcome measures that more accurately reﬂect the broader intent of education
are collected.

Knowledge of Education Market Dynamics

One of the two previously referenced major reform strategies, market dynam-
集成电路, requires yet a different kind of information to measure its effectiveness.
In addition to most of the aforementioned measures regarding pupils, 房子-
holds, and resources, choice necessitates measures of supply and competition.
These involve private and public providers and competition classiﬁcations of
schools regarding charter, magnet, or “attendance geographically restricted”
地位.

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“MODERN” EDUCATION FINANCE

Summary

Data collection can be expensive. 然而, direct costs are seldom the ex-
pensive part of the undertaking. Actual incremental costs of a data collection
effort are infrequently more than a few tenths of a percent of total education
operational spending, even when student academic testing is put into the cost
方程 (我们. General Accounting Ofﬁce 2004). Larger costs are associated
with transactions and local, 状态, and other school-afﬁliated ofﬁcials’ time
when asked to comply with requests for information. It is the multitiered gov-
ernmental mosaic relied upon by the United States to operate its schools that
exacerbates transactional expenses. The possible (mis)perception by informa-
tion suppliers that requested data are of little or no value to them in their
or their institutions’ immediate operation adds to the burden and sometimes
distorts the validity of the data collected.

Some data are needed for administrative oversight and legal compliance
(例如, minimal teacher salaries and percent of local district budget spent on
instruction and administration). Where such administratively required in-
formation is also useful for research and analytic purposes, then marginal
collection costs are low. It is when data providers are seldom end users that
incremental collection costs are intensiﬁed and accuracy is stretched. 这些
成本, both ﬁnancial and psychological, necessitate an efﬁcient data collection
手术.

结论
Total costs for America’s public schools have risen to almost $3 billion an
operating day; and as a result, the policy community anticipates that education
ﬁnance is becoming a lever, manipulation of which might maximize education
system purposes. This is the backdrop and principal propellant behind the
increasing policy system insistence that resources be linked with outcomes. 它
is this linkage that is shaping “modern” education ﬁnance.

The author wishes to express appreciation to Mathew G. Springer for his assistance in
the preparation of this essay.

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EDUCATION FINANCE AND POLICY
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