政策简介 - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

政策简介

Matthew A. Kraft

(corresponding author)

教育部

Brown University

Providence, RI 02906

mkraft@brown.edu

Joshua F. Bleiberg

Annenberg Institute

Brown University

Providence, RI 02906

joshua_bleiberg@brown.edu

THE INEQUITABLE EFFECTS OF TEACHER

LAYOFFS: WHAT WE KNOW AND CAN DO

抽象的
Economic downturns can cause major funding shortfalls for U.S.
public schools, often forcing districts to make diﬃcult budget
削减, including teacher layoﬀs. In this brief, we synthesize the
empirical literature on the widespread teacher layoﬀs caused by
the Great Recession. Studies ﬁnd that teacher layoﬀs harmed
student achievement and were inequitably distributed across
学校, 教师, and students. Research suggests that speciﬁc
elements of the layoﬀ process can exacerbate these negative ef-
fects. Seniority-based policies disproportionately concentrate lay-
oﬀs among teachers of color, who are more likely to be early career
教师. These “last-in ﬁrst-out” policies also disproportionately
aﬀect disadvantaged students because these students are more
likely to be taught by early career teachers. The common prac-
tice of widely distributing pink slips warning about a potential
job loss also appears to increase teacher churn and negatively im-
pact teacher performance. Drawing on this evidence, we outline a
set of policy recommendations to minimize the need for teacher
layoﬀs during economic downturns and ensure that the burden
of any unavoidable job cuts does not continue to be borne by stu-
dents of color and students from low-income backgrounds.

https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00369

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

367

Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs

I N T RO D U C T I O N
Economic booms and busts are an unavoidable feature of the U.S. 经济. When re-
cessions occur, the consequences for public school funding can be devastating. Spend-
ing on K–12 education makes up approximately one fourth of states’ total budgets,
with states providing, 一般, 47 cents per dollar of total K–12 funding (Urban
Instiute 2021). Budget shortfalls invariably force districts to make diﬃcult decisions
about the necessity of teacher layoﬀs, given that instructional salaries and beneﬁts con-
stitute over 60 percent of total operational expenditures (Jackson, Wigger, and Xiong
2021).

Most recently, the immediate economic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic led
school districts to lay oﬀ over 445,000 employees in a single month, with early job
losses largely concentrated among specialized instructional support personnel and ser-
vice workers (古尔德 2020). Most districts were able to avoid what analysts projected to
be large-scale teacher layoﬀs (McNichol and Leachman 2020) thanks to unexpectedly
strong state tax receipts and the inﬂux of unprecedented federal aid from the Coron-
avirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act and the American Rescue Plan
(ARP) Act. 然而, teacher layoﬀ policy remains as salient as ever given the budget
shortfalls that some districts still face today due to declining enrollment (安德森
2021), the coming funding cliﬀ when federal aid is exhausted, and the ever-present
prospect of future economic downturns.

In this brief, we synthesize the empirical literature on teacher layoﬀs, with particular
attention to the consequences of layoﬀs for educational equity. We then outline policy
recommendations for minimizing layoﬀs and ensuring the burden of any unavoidable
job cuts is not born disproportionately by students of color and students from low-
income backgrounds.

L E S S O N S F RO M T H E G R E AT R E C E S S I O N
The Great Recession and its consequences for K–12 education provide a sobering case
study about the repercussions of teacher layoﬀs. The K–12 public education system lost
几乎 350,000 jobs between 2008 和 2012, including over 120,000 elementary and
secondary teachers (埃文斯, Schwab, and Wagner 2019; Griﬃth 2020). Several studies
now show that the education funding cuts caused by the Great Recession harmed stu-
dent achievement and increased educational inequality. Jackson, Wigger, and Xiong
(2021) leverage diﬀerences in states’ historical reliance on state-level funding to esti-
mate the causal eﬀect of recessionary funding cuts. They ﬁnd that for every $1,000 decrease in per-pupil spending induced by the Great Recession, student achievement declined by 0.04 标准差 (标清) and college-going rates fell by 1.2 百分点. These negative eﬀects were larger for black students, increasing the black–white test score gap by 0.06 SD per every $1,000 减少. Shores and Steinberg (2019) 前任-
ploit diﬀerences in the exposure and intensity of recessionary cuts and also ﬁnd a clear
relationship between larger cuts and decreased achievement. Their analyses illustrate
that more severe spending cuts caused by the Great Recession decreased math scores
0.06 SD more among districts with high concentrations of black students and 0.08 标清
more among high-poverty districts compared with districts that served more white and
aﬄuent student populations (4th versus 1st quartiles).

368

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

Matthew A. Kraft and Joshua F. Bleiberg

Although it is diﬃcult to isolate the degree to which layoﬀs directly contributed to
recession-induced declines in achievement, there are strong reasons to suspect that
they played at least some role. Jackson, Wigger, and Xiong (2021) ﬁnd that for ev-
ery dollar in spending cuts during the Great Recession, districts reduced instructional
spending (IE。, teacher salaries and beneﬁts) 经过 $0.45, 一般. Substantial declines
in instructional expenditures are nearly impossible without reductions-in-force (RIFs).
Prior studies have also shown how teacher turnover across schools and churn within
学校, both consequences of layoﬀs, negatively aﬀect student achievement (Ronfeldt,
Loeb, and Wyckoﬀ 2013; Atteberry, Loeb, and Wyckoﬀ 2017). Layoﬀs can also result
in class size increases, which have negative consequences for student achievement
(Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain 2005; 给, Glewwe, and Whitler 2012). Districts often
concentrate teacher layoﬀs among specialists such as those that teach the arts. 一些
randomized controlled trials suggest that cuts to arts education would erode the im-
portant role the arts play in promoting students’ social-emotional and critical thinking
技能 (Bowen, Greene, and Kisida 2014; Kisida, Bowen, and Greene 2016; Greene et al.
2018; Bowen and Kisida 2019).

Research has further demonstrated how the layoﬀ process itself has detrimental ef-
fects on teachers and students. State statutes and local collective bargaining agreements
often require districts to notify in early spring any teacher who may be laid oﬀ. The un-
certainty of the budgeting process leads districts to send three to six times as many
teachers a “pink slip” (notice of potential dismissal) than is typically necessary. 金子-
haber, Strunk, and their colleagues draw on data from the Los Angeles Uniﬁed School
District and Washington state to show that RIF notices, most of which do not result in
an actual layoﬀ, can increase teacher mobility across schools and lower teacher perfor-
曼斯 (Goldhaber et al. 2016; Strunk et al. 2018). The authors argue that the threat of
job loss induced substantial workplace stress, decreasing job commitment and shifting
teachers’ time toward alternative job searches.

S E N I O R I T Y – B A S E D L AYO F F S
At the time of the Great Recession, the vast majority of districts used seniority as
the sole determinant of teacher layoﬀs, often within certiﬁcation area (科恩 2010).
District-wide “last-in ﬁrst-out” (LIFO) policies provide a simple, 客观的, and trans-
parent approach for conducting layoﬀs. 同时, seniority-based layoﬀs
exacerbate the negative consequences of the layoﬀ process through multiple chan-
内尔斯. 第一的, LIFO layoﬀs during the Great Recession resulted in substantial teacher
churn as early career teachers were laid oﬀ, even if their positions were not elimi-
指定的, causing the district to reshuﬄe teachers across schools (Goldhaber et al. 2016).
第二, seniority-based layoﬀs increase the total number of layoﬀs (Roza 2009).
Kraft’s (2015) analyses of discretionary layoﬀs in Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools (CMS)
show how the more holistic layoﬀ process used by CMS, which considered multiple
criteria (such as performance evaluations, license status, and experience), 导致
fewer total teacher layoﬀs because it removed some more experienced, higher-paid
教师.

A third negative consequence of the LIFO layoﬀ process is that it can result in the
removal of some high-performing early career teachers. Although teachers improve

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

369

Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs

桌子 1. Racial Composition of U.S. K—12 Public School Teachers by Career Status

Teacher Race/Ethnicity

All Teachers

Experienced Teachers

Early Career Teachers

白色的

黑色的

Hispanic

Asian

Hawaiian/Pacific Islander

Native American/Alaskan

Multiple race/ethnicities

80.1%

80.8%

6.7%

8.5%

2.3%

0.2%

0.4%

1.8%

6.5%

8.2%

2.2%

0.2%

0.4%

1.6%

74.3%

8.3%

11.1%

2.3%

0.3%

0.6%

3.1%

笔记: Early career teachers have three or fewer years of experience and experienced teachers
have four or more years of experience.
来源: National Teacher and Principal Survey 2015—16 (https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/
pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017156).

with experience, 一般 (Papay and Kraft 2015), there still exists considerable vari-
ation in performance among teachers with the same level of seniority (Gordon, Kane,
and Staiger 2006). 不出所料, several simulations document that fewer than
one in ﬁve teachers targeted for layoﬀs under district-wide inverse-seniority policies
would also be laid oﬀ under a performance-based policy (Boyd et al. 2011; Goldhaber
and Theobald 2013). Analyzing actual teacher layoﬀs in CMS, Kraft (2015) shows that
laying oﬀ an eﬀective teacher lowered student achievement by 0.05 到 0.11 SD more than
laying oﬀ an ineﬀective teacher. Further evidence from Washington, 直流, public schools
ﬁnds large gains in achievement (0.14 到 0.21 标清) due to turnover by low-performing
教师, coupled with negative eﬀects of turnover among high-performing teachers.
一起, these studies point to the importance of considering teacher eﬀectiveness in
layoﬀ decisions (Adnot et al. 2017).

最后, LIFO policies can undercut eﬀorts by districts to improve teacher recruit-
ment and selection and to diversify the teacher workforce. Seniority-based layoﬀs result
in proportionally larger concentrations of layoﬀs among teachers of color because they
are more likely to be early career teachers relative to white teachers. We illustrate this
point using nationally representative data on the U.S. K–12 public teacher workforce
from the 2015–16 National Teacher and Principal Survey. As shown in table 1, 黑色的
teachers constitute 6.5 percent of the experienced teacher workforce (4 years or more)
但 8.3 percent of early career teachers (3 years or less). 相似地, Hispanic teachers
constitute 8.2 percent of the experienced teacher workforce, 但 11.1 percent of early ca-
reer teachers. 相比之下, white teachers make up a larger share of experienced teachers
compared with early career teachers (80.8 百分比与 74.3 百分). Comparing the
proportion of teachers of a given race who are early-career teachers also illustrates that
teachers of color are more likely to be in the early phase of their career. 使用相同的
数据, we ﬁnd that 7.2 percent of all Hispanic teachers and 7.0 percent of black teachers
are early career, while only 4.9 percent of white teachers are early career. The dispro-
portionate concentration of layoﬀs among teachers of color under LIFO is particularly
concerning given mounting evidence of the large and lasting beneﬁts students of color
experience as a result of being taught by a teacher with a common racial background
(Gershenson, 汉森, and Lindsay 2021).

370

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

Matthew A. Kraft and Joshua F. Bleiberg

桌子 2. Percent of U.S. Eighth-Grade Students Taught by
Early Career Teachers in English Language Arts

Student Race/Ethnicity

Early Career Teachers

全面的

白色的

黑色的

Hispanic

FRPL eligible

FRPL ineligible

13.0%

12.1%

16.4%

18.0%

14.9%

11.4%

笔记: Early career teachers have two or fewer years of expe-
里恩斯. FRPL = free or reduced-price lunch. Students attend
traditional and charter public schools.

来源: 2017 National Assessment of Educational Progress
restricted-use files for eighth-grade reading.

D I S P RO P O R T I O N AT E E X P O S U R E TO T E AC H E R L AYO F F S
Research shows that students of color and students from low-income backgrounds are
more likely than their white and more aﬄuent peers to lose teachers due to layoﬀs.
This pattern holds true across districts because: (1) districts that disproportionately serve
vulnerable students rely most on state aid, 和 (2) state revenues from sales and income
taxes are more sensitive to economic downturns than local revenues from property
税收 (贝克, Sciarra, and Farrie 2014; 埃文斯, Schwab, and Wagner 2019). The result
is that districts in less aﬄuent communities must contend with comparatively larger
budget cuts and resulting layoﬀs (骑士 2017).

This diﬀerential exposure to layoﬀs is also a pattern that holds within districts,
particularly those that implement district-wide, seniority-based layoﬀs (Goldhaber and
Theobald 2013). 例如, in the ﬁrst two years of the Great Recession, black and
Hispanic elementary students in Los Angeles Uniﬁed School District had 72 百分
和 25 percent greater odds, 分别, of having their teacher laid oﬀ compared with
their white peers (Knight and Strunk 2016). The intuition for this is straightforward.
Schools that serve students of color and students from low-income backgrounds are, 在
average, staﬀed by less-experienced teachers (Clotfelter et al. 2006; Peske and Haycock
2006; Goldhaber, Quince, and Theobald 2018). This pattern of diﬀerential exposure
to early career teachers is clearly evident in table 2. Among a nationally representative
sample of eighth-grade students who took the 2017 National Assessment of Educational
进步, 16.4 percent of black students and 18.0 percent of Hispanic students were
taught English language arts by early career teachers (two years or less) compared with
仅有的 12.1 percent of white students. 相似地, 14.9 percent of students from low-income
backgrounds had early career English language arts teachers compared with 11.4 每-
cent of their more aﬄuent peers.

The unequal distribution of experienced teachers across schools is due to higher
rates of turnover in high-poverty schools serving students of color (Simon and Johnson
2015) as well as within-district transfer policies and patterns. Many collective bargaining
agreements provide tenured teachers rights or advantages during the internal transfer
process for securing open positions at other schools (莱文, Mulhern, and Schunck
2005). This further enables a pattern where experienced teachers systematically

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

371

Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs

transfer away from schools with unsupportive working conditions, which also tend to
serve low-income students and students of color, to supportive schools often serving
more aﬄuent, white students (Boyd et al. 2011; 约翰逊, Kraft, and Papay 2012; Anzia
and Moe 2014). One consequence of these sorting patterns is that LIFO layoﬀ policies
end up removing less-experienced teachers, sometimes en masse, from a small hand-
ful of schools. Further compounding these inequities, high-poverty districts that serve
more students of color are more likely to have seniority-based layoﬀ policies (Ingle,
威利斯, and Herd 2017).

T H E PAT H F O RW A R D
The Great Recession had profound and lasting negative consequences for K–12 pub-
lic education borne most by students of color and low-income students. K–12 employ-
ment was only just approaching pre-recession levels after ten years of economic growth.
The Great Recession caused the largest labor force decline in the history of U.S. 民众
schools until the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the immediate future looks brighter
than many analysts predicted at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the long-term
prospects of potential teacher layoﬀs remain. 以下, we present a set of policy recom-
mendations to minimize the need for layoﬀs and their disproportional impact on vul-
nerable students.

Federal Level
Create a Federal Stabilization Fund for Districts
Given the negative consequences of teacher layoﬀs for both student achievement and
整体经济, the federal government should create an education stabiliza-
tion fund to help states and districts minimize cuts during economic downturns (Coun-
cil of the Great City Schools 2020; Baker and Di Carlo 2020; Gordon and Reber 2020).
These stabilization funds should be allocated with appropriate local discretion over how
best to target funds toward core personnel and operating expenses rather than overly
speciﬁc prescriptions.

Require States to Collect Data on Teacher Layoffs
Policy makers lack detailed information about the scale and distribution of teacher lay-
oﬀs. The federal government should require states to collect and provide detailed data
on the gender, race/ethnicity, grade-level, 主题, and school characteristics of teachers
who receive pink slips and are ultimately laid oﬀ. Such data are critical for understand-
ing whether groups of schools, 教师, or students are disproportionately aﬀected in
the layoﬀ process either because of LIFO policies or potential discriminatory practices
under a more ﬂexible approach.

State Level
Adopt a Maintenance-of-Equity Approach for Budget Cuts
Given the larger reliance on state funding among high-poverty districts, across-the-
board cuts to state education funding can further exacerbate existing funding gaps
(Corcoran and Evans 2012; de Brey et al. 2019). Any unavoidable reductions in state

372

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

Matthew A. Kraft and Joshua F. Bleiberg

aid should be targeted toward more regressive state funding programs and distributed
in a way to maintain more equitable total funding levels across districts.

Move Away from Seniority-Based Layoff Policies
LIFO layoﬀ policies are inequitable, lead to more total job losses, and undercut eﬀorts
to recruit talented and diverse teachers. Since the Great Recession, twenty states have
enacted legislation that signiﬁcantly restricts the use of seniority as the primary factor in
determining teacher layoﬀs (Dabbs 2020). All states should pass laws barring districts
from using seniority as the sole criteria for layoﬀs, while also ensuring protections for
teachers from discriminatory employment practices that often disproportionately aﬀect
female teachers (Biasi and Sarsons 2020) and teachers of color (D’amico et al. 2017;
德雷克, Auletto, and Cowen 2019).

District Level
Explore Alternative Ways to Reduce Personnel Expenditures
Districts can reduce the need for layoﬀs through early retirement incentives and col-
lective action, such as wage freezes, temporary wage reductions, and furloughs (dur-
ing noninstructional days) for all employees, including district leadership. These ap-
proaches are not without their own negative consequences but should be on the table
if core classroom teaching positions are at risk.

Communicate Early and Avoid Unnecessary Pink Slips
Districts should work to reduce uncertainty about the threat of layoﬀs by engaging in
early and transparent communication about the scope and process of potential layoﬀs.
Every eﬀort should be taken to accelerate the budgeting process to avoid distributing
more pink slips than is absolutely necessary.

Use Existing Flexibilities to Conduct Holistic Layoffs
Districts have more ﬂexibility now than ever to avoid concentrating layoﬀs in schools
that predominantly serve students of color and students from low-income backgrounds.
仅有的 30 percent of the largest districts in the country continue to use seniority as the
primary criterion to inform the layoﬀ process (Saenz-Armstrong 2020). These districts
should continue to work with teacher unions to develop more holistic layoﬀ procedures
that both protect teachers’ rights from unfair labor practices and provide ﬂexibility to
consider multiple criteria and school needs (Goldhaber and Theobald 2020).

Implement School-Based Rather than Districtwide Layoffs
Districts should explore and adopt layoﬀ processes that distribute RIFs more equitably
across schools, minimizing teacher churn. One such example is the school-based pro-
cess used by CMS during the Great Recession. CMS allocated layoﬀs across schools
based on enrollment projections, principals then identiﬁed position categories to be
reduced and, ﬁnally, district oﬃcials selected which teacher(s) within these categories
would be RIFed at a school based on multiple criteria (Kraft 2015).

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

373

Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs

C O N C L U S I O N
The burden of budget cuts and teacher layoﬀs need not fall disproportionately on stu-
dents of color and students from low-income backgrounds. There is ample room for
districts to move toward more equitable layoﬀ practices when layoﬀs are unavoidable.
Let’s learn from the past so we do not repeat it.

致谢
This research was generously funded by William T. Grant Foundation award #G1098. 我们是
grateful for the research support provided by Samuel Lynch and Anna Bogdanok, and feedback
from Bruce Baker, Nora Gordon, Constance Lindsay, and Allison Socol and her colleagues at The
Education Trust.

参考
Adnot, Melinda, Thomas Dee, Veronica Katz, and James Wyckoﬀ. 2017. Teacher turnover, teacher
质量, and student achievement in DCPS. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 39(1): 54–
76. 10.3102/0162373716663646

安德森, Laura. 2021. District budget decisions & 劳动
implications. Available https://
edunomicslab.org/district-budget-decisions-labor-implications/. Accessed 24 十一月 2021.

Anzia, Sarah F., and Terry M. Moe. 2014. Collective bargaining, transfer rights, and disadvantaged
学校. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 36(1): 83–111. 10.3102/0162373713500524

Atteberry, Allison, Susanna Loeb, and James Wyckoﬀ. 2017. Teacher churning: Reassignment
rates and implications for student achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 39(1):
3–30. 10.3102/0162373716659929

贝克, Bruce D., and Matthew Di Carlo. 2020. The coronavirus pandemic and K-12 education
资金. 华盛顿, 直流: Albert Shanker Institute.

贝克, Bruce D., David G. Sciarra, and Danielle Farrie. 2014. Is school funding fair? A national
report card. Newark, 新泽西州: Education Law Center.

Biasi, 芭芭拉, and Heather Sarsons. 2020. Flexible wages, bargaining, and the gender gap.
NBER Working Paper No. 27894.

Bowen, Daniel H., Jay P. Greene, and Brian Kisida. 2014. Learning to think critically: A visual art
实验. Educational Researcher 43(1): 37–44. 10.3102/0013189X13512675

Bowen, Daniel H., and Brian Kisida. 2019. Investigating causal eﬀects of arts education experi-
恩塞斯: Experimental evidence from Houston’s Arts Access Initiative. Houston Education Research
Consortium 7(4): 1–28.

Boyd, 大学教师, Hamp Lankford, Susanna Loeb, Matthew Ronfeldt, and Jim Wyckoﬀ. 2011. The role
of teacher quality in retention and hiring: Using applications to transfer to uncover preferences
of teachers and schools. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 30(1): 88–110. 10.1002/帕姆
.20545

给, Hyunkuk, Paul Glewwe, and Melissa Whitler. 2012. Do reductions in class size raise stu-
dents’ test scores? Evidence from population variation in Minnesota’s elementary schools. 生态-
nomics of Education Review 31(3): 77–95. 10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.01.004

Clotfelter, 查尔斯, Helen F. Ladd, Jacob Vigdor, and Justin Wheeler. 2006. High-poverty schools
and the distribution of teachers and principals. North Carolina Law Review 85(5): 1345–1379.

374

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

Matthew A. Kraft and Joshua F. Bleiberg

科恩, Emily. 2010. Teacher layoﬀs: Rethinking “last-hired, ﬁrst-ﬁred” policies. 华盛顿, 直流:
National Council on Teacher Quality.

Corcoran, Sean P., and William N. 埃文斯. 2012. Equity, adequacy and the evolving state role in
education ﬁnance. In Handbook of research in education ﬁnance and policy, edited by Helen F. Ladd
and Margaret E. Goertz, PP. 354–378. 纽约: 劳特利奇.

Council of
the Great City Schools. 2020. Coronavirus aid letter. Available https://万维网
.documentcloud.org/documents/6884049-CGCS-Coronavirus-Aid-Letter-II.html. Accessed 24
十一月 2021.

Dabbs, Christine M. 2020. Restricting seniority as a factor in public school district layoﬀs: 一个-
alyzing the impact of state legislation on graduation rates. Economics of Education Review 74(1):
1–10. 10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.101926

D’amico, Diana, 罗伯特·J. Pawlewicz, Penelope M. Earley, and Adam P. McGeehan. 2017. 在哪里
are all the black teachers? Discrimination in the teacher labor market. Harvard Educational Review
87(1): 26–49.

de Brey, Cristobal, Lauren Musu, Joel McFarland, Sidney Wilkinson-Flicker, Melissa Diliberti,
Anlan Zhang, Claire Branstetter, and Xiaolei Wang. 2019. Status and trends in the education
of racial and ethnic groups. Available https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019038.pdf . Accessed 24
十一月 2021.

德雷克, Steven, Amy Auletto, and Joshua M. 考恩. 2019. Grading teachers: Race and gender
diﬀerences in low evaluation ratings and teacher employment outcomes. American Educational
Research Journal 56(5): 1800–1833. 10.3102/0002831219835776

埃文斯, William N., Robert M. Schwab, and Kathryn L. 瓦格纳. 2019. The Great Recession and
公共教育. Education Finance and Policy 14(2): 298–326. 10.1162/edfp_a_00245

Gershenson, 赛斯, Michael Hansen, 和康斯坦斯A. Lindsay. 2021. Teacher diversity and student
成功: Why racial representation matters in the classroom. 剑桥, 嘛: Harvard Education
按.

Goldhaber, Dan, Vanessa Quince, and Roddy Theobald. 2018. Has it always been this way? Trac-
ing the evolution of teacher quality gaps in U.S. public schools. American Educational Research
杂志 55(1): 171–201. 10.3102/0002831217733445

Goldhaber, Dan, Katharine O. Strunk, Nate Brown, 和大卫·S. 骑士. 2016. Lessons learned
from the Great Recession: Layoﬀs and the RIF-induced teacher shuﬄe. Educational Evaluation
and Policy Analysis 38(3): 517–548. 10.3102/0162373716647917

Goldhaber, Dan, and Roddy Theobald. 2013. Managing the teacher workforce in austere times:
The determinants and implications of teacher layoﬀs. Education Finance and Policy 8(4): 494–527.
10.1162/EDFP_a_00111

Goldhaber, Dan, and Roddy Theobald. 2020. The COVID-19 crisis and teacher layoﬀs: 研究
on how to mitigate harm. CALDER Policy Brief No. 20-0620, American Institutes for Research.

Gordon, Nora, and Sarah Reber. 2020. Federal aid to school districts during the COVID-19 reces-
锡安. National Tax Journal 73(3): 781–804. 10.17310/ntj.2020.3.07

Gordon, 罗伯特, 托马斯·J. Kane, and Douglas O. Staiger. 2006. Identifying eﬀective teachers
using performance on the job. The Hamilton Project Discussion Paper No. 2006-01. 华盛顿,
直流: The Brookings Institution.

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

375

Inequitable Effects of Teacher Layoffs

古尔德, Elise. 2020. Public education job losses in April are already greater than in all of the Great
Recession. Available https://www.epi.org/blog/public-education-job-losses-in-april-are-already
-greater-than-in-all-of-the-great-recession/. Accessed 24 十一月 2021.

Greene, Jay P., Heidi H. 埃里克森, Angela R. 沃森, and Molly I. Beck. 2018. The play’s the
事物: Experimentally examining the social and cognitive eﬀects of school ﬁeld trips to live theater
performances. Educational Researcher 47(4): 246–254. 10.3102/0013189X18761034

Griﬃth, 迈克尔. 2020. The impact of the COVID-19 recession on teaching positions. Avail-
able https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/blog/impact-covid-19-recession-teaching-positions. 乙酰胆碱-
cessed 24 十一月 2021.

Ingle, 瓦. Kyle, Chris Willis, and Ann Herd. 2017. Deﬁning “comparable”: An analysis of reduction
in force provisions in Ohio school districts. Journal of School Leadership 27(1): 68–93. 10.1177/
105268461702700103

Jackson, C. Kirabo, Cora Wigger, and Heyu Xiong. 2021. Do school spending cuts matter? Ev-
idence from the Great Recession. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 13(2): 304–335.
10.1257/pol.20180674

约翰逊, Susan Moore, Matthew A. Kraft, and John P. Papay. 2012. How context matters in
high-need schools: The eﬀects of teachers’ working conditions on their professional satisfaction
and their students’ achievement. Teachers College Record 114(10): 1–39. 10.1177/016146811211401004,
考研: 24013958

Kisida, Brian, Daniel H. Bowen, and Jay P. Greene. 2016. Measuring critical thinking: 结果
from an art museum ﬁeld trip experiment. Journal of Research on Educational Eﬀectiveness 9(补充
1): 171–187. 10.1080/19345747.2015.1086915

骑士, 大卫·S。. 2017. Are high-poverty school districts disproportionately impacted by state
funding cuts? School ﬁnance equity following the Great Recession. Journal of Education Finance
43(2): 169–194.

骑士, David S., and Katharine O. Strunk. 2016. Who bears the costs of district funding cuts?
Reducing inequality in the distribution of teacher layoﬀs. Educational Researcher 45(7): 395–406.
10.3102/0013189X16670899

Kraft, Matthew A. 2015. Teacher layoﬀs, teacher quality, and student achievement: 证据来自
a discretionary layoﬀ policy. Education Finance and Policy 10(4): 467–507. 10.1162/EDFP_a_00171

莱文, Jessica, Jennifer Mulhern, and Joan Schunck. 2005. Unintended consequences: 案子
for reforming the staﬃng rules in urban teachers union contracts. Available https://tntp.org/assets/
documents/UnintendedConsequences.pdf . Accessed 29 十一月 2021.

McNichol, Elizabeth, and Michael Leachman. 2020. States continue to face large short-
falls due to COVID-19 eﬀects. Available https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/
states-continue-to-face-large-shortfalls-due-to-covid-19-eﬀects. Accessed 24 十一月 2021.

Papay, John P., and Matthew A. Kraft. 2015. Productivity returns to experience in the teacher labor
市场: Methodological challenges and new evidence on long-term career improvement. 杂志
of Public Economics 130(1): 105–119. 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.02.008

Peske, Heather G., and Kati Haycock. 2006. Teaching inequality: How poor and minority stu-
dents are shortchanged on teacher quality. 华盛顿, 直流: Education Trust.

Rivkin, Steven G., Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain. 2005. 教师, 学校, and academic
achievement. Econometrica 73(2): 417–458. 10.1111/j.1468-0262.2005.00584.x

376

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d

乙
y
G
你
e
s
t

哦
n
0
8
S
e
p
e
米
乙
e
r
2
0
2
3

Matthew A. Kraft and Joshua F. Bleiberg

Ronfeldt, 马修, Susanna Loeb, and James Wyckoﬀ. 2013. How teacher turnover harms stu-
dent achievement. American Educational Research Journal 50(1): 4–36. 10.3102/0002831212463813

Roza, Marguerite. 2009. Seniority-based layoﬀs will exacerbate job loss in public education.
Seattle, WA: Center on Reinventing Public Education.

Saenz-Armstrong, Patricia. 2020. Teacher layoﬀ criteria during a pandemic-driven recession. Ava-
ilable https://www.nctq.org/blog/Teacher-layoﬀ-criteria-during-a-pandemic–driven-recession.
Accessed 24 十一月 2021.

Shores, Kenneth, and Matthew P. Steinberg. 2019. Schooling during the Great Recession: Pat-
terns of school spending and student achievement using population data. AERA Open 5(3): 1–29.
10.1177/2332858419877431

西蒙, Nicole, and Susan Moore Johnson. 2015. Teacher turnover in high-poverty schools: 什么
we know and can do. Teachers College Record 117(3): 1–36. 10.1177/016146811511700305

Strunk, Katharine O., Dan Goldhaber, 大卫·S。. 骑士, and Nate Brown. 2018. Are there hid-
den costs associated with conducting layoﬀs? The impact of reduction-in-force and layoﬀ no-
tices on teacher eﬀectiveness. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 37(4): 755–782. 10.1002/
pam.22074

Urban Institute. 2021. State and local expenditures. Available https://www.urban.org/policy-
centers/cross-center-initiatives/state-and-local-ﬁnance-initiative/state-and-local-backgrounders
/state-and-local-expenditures. Accessed 29 十一月 2021.

我

D
哦
w
n
哦
A
d
e
d

F
r
哦
米
H

t
t

:
/
/

d
我
r
e
C
t
.

米

我
t
.

e
d
你
e
d
p
A
r
t
我
C
e
–
p
d

我

F
/

1
7
2
3
6
7
2
0
0
4
2
4
3
e
d
p
_
A
_
0
0
3
6
9
p
d