介绍 - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

介绍

Debates concerning the nature and essence of design continue to
stimulate our insights into this elusive but most fundamental of
concepts—in all of its rich dimensions. From the earliest periods
of humanism, through the industrial age to a new post-digital era,
design has gradually moved from the shadows of our consciousness
to enlighten all aspects of what it now means to be human. It is at
the core of our experience in the world. Whereas it may be tempt-
ing to assume that earlier approaches to design are abandoned, 作为
new ways of re-thinking them emerge, experience tells us this is
not always so. Just like different approaches to the design of human
momentum, the earlier forms of transportation often continue to co-
exist alongside their successors—yet, new life has to be breathed
into these earlier forms if they are to survive and constitute a rich
ecology of ways and means.

的确, the conversation about design, past and present, 有
never been so intense and sophisticated as at present. As we have
reshaped some earlier concepts of design (例如, it being simply
the means to provide the tools needed to achieve our ambitions)
the debate has intensified. In a post-digital era that now offers all
of the tools needed to make most anything we want, the pressing
dilemma is no longer to think how we can make something, 但为了
ask ourselves what it is we want to achieve in a complex and frag-
ile world. The imagination needed to address this fundamental
proposition requires a capacity for broad understandings—inside
which the specialist needs of professions will be nested. Here the
wisdom of a humanist education, and what it means to be human
in a social and environmental context, returns to infuse the debate
on design.

在此背景下, and within the pages of Design Issues, 我们
seek to embrace the complexity and variety of design’s rich ecology
in the knowledge that it will always sustain a focus on what it
means to be human in contemporary life. In this issue the conver-
sation opens with a debate on human-centered design. In his intro-
duction to “Design Discourse for Organization Design: Foundations
of Human-Centered Design,” Rodrigo Magalhaes quotes Karl
Weick’s statement, “我们 [organisation design thinkers] now func-
tion as a discipline of critics who lower confidence, rather than a
discipline of designers who raise confidence.” He responds to this
challenge with the aim to re-establish the design discipline as a

https://doi.org/10.1162/desi_e_00492

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foundation of organization design. In so doing, Magalhaes dis-
tinguishes between earlier perceptions of design as “structure” or
“configuration” and a more action-oriented interpretation in which
design is not determined, nor constrained, by the environment.
在此背景下, design is neither reactive nor self-serving but a pro-
active service that can help to shape and create new environments
in which human beings will behave. Magalhaes admits that prog-
ress towards this aim has been slow with design still being domi-
nated by strictly rational engineering-like approaches at the expense
of human-centered considerations that emphasize action and trans-
formational change.

下列的, Hannah Drayson continues the conversation
through a discourse in medical science where human perception
and human experience are a priori. In “Design(英) and the Placebo
Effect—A Productive Idea,” she highlights the beneficial effects that
people can experience from seemingly inert medicines. Here a
placebo is a “sham” treatment given to someone in such a way
that it creates within them the impression of having been real and
effective. The long association of placebo with “sham” tactics has
tended to stereotype its application in design as a form of decep-
的. By way of illustration Drayson cites the illusion of control
that people have experienced when using non-functioning buttons
on a Manhatten pedestrian crossing. She then goes on to cite Dunne
and Raby’s Placebo Project in which “sham” design interventions
are situated in domestic environments to test the degree to which
they stimulate psychological comforts and feelings of well-being.
Drayson then goes on to discuss the legal and ethical issues raised
by the design of direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription
drugs where the appearance, 颜色, and shape of generic tablets
mimic brand-name drugs. Placebo responses such as these are often
tied to the associated narratives and cultural references that stimu-
late human imagination and, 因此, its subsequent effects. Drayson
concludes that whereas “placebo” effects remain synonymous with
deception and illusion there is nonetheless a sense that the placebo
concept in design is sufficiently powerful and influential to be wor-
thy of greater serious attention.

In “Basel to Boston: An Itinerary for Modernist Typography
in America” Robert Weisenberger and Elizabeth Resnick chart
the influential role that MIT played from the 1950’s onward in
embedding quality design principles within the lifeblood of a large
and complex U.S. 组织. Within this they further tease out
the social and cultural networks connecting people and ideas in
this landmark project. The story begins with György Kepes, 这
Hungarian-born painter, photographer, 设计师, 教育家, and art

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设计问题: 体积 34, 数字 3 夏天 2018

theorist. Kepes (who was a former colleague of fellow-Hungarian
and Bauhas Master, László Moholy-Nagy) had been teaching, 自从
1945, visual design in MIT’s department of architecture. It was on
Kepes’ recommendation that MIT became the first American uni-
versity to centralize the design of all its publications and employ
Muriel Cooper as MIT’s first resident designer. 在 1958 MIT then was
inspired to establish a visiting program for designers from Europe;
among these visiting scholars was Thérèse Moll. She had studied
in the Basel School of Design under two of the great standard
bearers of Swiss typography, Emile Ruder and Armin Hoffman.
Having also worked with Karl Gerstner and at Studio Boggeri
in Milan, Moll brought to MIT a strong sense of European design.
Weisenberger and Resnick go on to chart this heightened aware-
ness of European design and its evolution within the design of MIT
publications until the decline of modernism and emergence of post-
modernist ideas in the early 1970’s. This article encapsulates design
in a period just before the advent of desktop computers when it was
conditioned by the demands of letterpress technology and inspired
by the optimism of European émigrés, who saw modernism as
bringing even more order to a world that was gradually emerging
from the chaos of war.

In “The Mundane and Strategic Work in Collaborative
Design” Virve Miettinen and Sampsa Hyysalo discuss the sys-
tematic involvement of citizens in design and development activi-
领带. Their article focuses on the processes of participative planning
that informed the design of the new Helsinki Central Library proj-
ect. 尤其, their article recognizes both the broader strategic
planning needed to realize such a project, as well as the mundane
work essential to its support. In the latter case, they took account
of a variety of actions that included, 例如, arranging space
for workshops and seeking out participants. 全面的, they draw
attention to the ways in which such seemingly mundane activities
permeate the overall outcomes of collaborative design and play
an important role in its outcomes—just as the far loftier concerns of
民主, 平等, 价值观, social structures, 性别, methodolo-
吉斯, and so on have tended to be the focus of academic research in
collaborative design. 在本文中, Miettinen and Hyysalo examine
the relationships between, and the effects of, the mundane and
strategic work of collaborative design in real-life projects through
designer retrospectives.

In all corners of the world, the transition from script culture
(manuscript) to the mass production of text from movable type
(书) set in motion a social revolution that remained unparalleled
until the advent of digital communication. Both of these revolutions

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设计问题: 体积 34, 数字 3 夏天 2018

fundamentally changed the ways in which societies educated
themselves and transmitted both knowledge and culture through
time and space. Whereas Guttenberg’s Latin alphabet, with its 26
soldiers of lead, lent itself to mechanical reproduction, 那些
cultures with more complex scripts took longer to embrace the mass
production of text from movable letterforms. In “Ottoman Foun-
dations of Turkish Typography: A Field Theory Approach” Özlem
Özkal observes that it was 266 years after Guttenberg’s invention of
printing from movable type that Ibrahim Muteferrika used letter-
press technology to print in Turkey. Özkal goes on to identify the
main characters in Turkish typographic development and the ten-
sions that continued to exist through the translation of traditional
script forms into typographic elements suitable for mass reproduc-
的. In doing this, he asserts that although the 1928 script reform
marks an abrupt change in the typographic history of Turkey this
is not the starting point for typographic formation that can be traced
back to the Ottoman period.

In “Care and Capacities of Human-Centered Design” Ian
Hargraves points out that, for most of the nineteenth and twentieth
世纪, designers thought of themselves as having subject
matter experience, but that this conception had shifted significantly
during the last forty years. 设计, in large measure, no longer
understands itself through the classes of artifacts it produces.
反而, he goes on to say, “design commonly conceives of itself and
promotes itself as a general approach for innovative change—as
having no subject matter that is properly its own.” In this context
Hargraves reflects upon the role of design in health care through
examples such as Kaiser Permanente (California’s largest healthcare
提供者)—that for over a decade has maintained a design group,
and the Mayo Clinic where a small experiment in embedding
design research led to the creation of an organization-wide Centre
for Innovation. Alongside this Hargraves discusses some new prin-
ciples for design with a recognition that when principles enter the
conversation, they tend to be reduced to expressions of what design
can do, rather than becoming full-bodied encounters with what it
is to hold people as mattering. Here he quotes Richard Buchanan,
“ ‘it is fundamentally an affirmation of human dignity. It is an on-
going search for what can be done to support the dignity of human
beings as they act out their lives in varied social, 经济的, 政治-
cal and cultural circumstances.’ ”

In “Designing for Participation: Dignity and Autonomy of
Service” Miso Kim asks, “What might be a humanistic framework
of service that could provide guidance for designers to explore
the rich relationships that constitute a service?” In framing this

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设计问题: 体积 34, 数字 3 夏天 2018

问题, Kim cites the phenomenon that whereas people will
forgive bad artifacts rather easily, they will rarely forget a bad ser-
vice experience. When sharing these stories people mostly describe
the indignity felt through a bad service as if it were a personal in-
苏尔特. Ordinary as it may be, service indignity can accumulate little
by little in everyday lives, becoming an expected reality and source
of stress in society. Kim goes on to consider what the principle of
dignity might be and concludes that it is intimately tied to auton-
omy—the ability of a person to act in accordance with their free will
rather than external pressure. Kim traces the origins of this ap-
proach back to the Renaissance foundations of humanism through
the work of, 例如, Pico della Mirandola. So dignity rests
in an autonomy of choice—the freedom to create and change one-
自己. In this respect, Kim then moves on to consider current service
design characteristics where the frameworks attempt to control
people rather than support their capacity for autonomous action. 在
response to this, Kim describes an alternative framework for
service design that is participative and layered. 综上所述, Kim
observes that, though these layers coexist interdependently, 设计-
ers need to consider them together as a holistic experience. 没有
这, the risk is that an understanding of people’s autonomy will be
limited and, 最后, their dignity undermined.

最后, this issue of Design Issues concludes with four book
reviews: Marta Anguera’s review of Enric Huguet: 60 Years of the
History of Catalan Graphic Design; Ksenija Berk’s review of a book on
design in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,
Design for a New World; Rachel Hunnicutt’s review of Building
Bacardi: Architecture, Art & 身份, 和; Kate Nelischer’s review
of Canada: Modern Architectures in History. Together these books sur-
vey design: from the twentieth century during periods of massive
change to the political configuration of Europe, to the shifting of
身份, to the emergence of green movements and sustainable
价值观, and to the role of design in helping form national and cor-
porate identities.

Bruce Brown
理查德·布坎南
卡尔·迪萨尔沃
Dennis Doordan
Kipum Lee
维克多·马戈林
拉米亚·马泽

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设计问题: 体积 34, 数字 3 夏天 2018
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