G e n e rAl A r t i c l e
Investigating the Effect of Jo-ha-ky –u on
music tempos and kinematics across Cultures
Animation Design for 3D Characters Using
Japanese Bunraku Theater
RAn do nG, do nG ShEnG CA I, S hInGo h A
yAn o , S hIn o b u
n AkA G A W A, An d S oI ChI Ro I k u n o
t
C
A
右
t
S
乙
A
Bunraku theater is a traditional Japanese performing art. Bunraku
puppeteering can invoke deep unconscious affective reactions from
the audience, overcoming what is known as the uncanny valley effect.
The authors analyze Bunraku plays, showing that the music tempo
and puppet movements follow the Jo-Ha-Kyū principle, which refers to
recursive and fractal artistic modulations such as changes of tempo and
rhythm breaks. The authors then illustrate the difference between Bunraku
and European dance and finally propose the application of Jo-Ha-Kyū in
character animation design.
thE unCAnny vAllEy And bunRAku thEA tER
Many unanswered questions remain about how humans
form emotions through interaction and communication. 在
human-robot interaction, there is a phenomenon called the
uncanny valley. The idea suggests that objects such as robots
can make people feel uneasy or repulsed as they become in-
creasingly human-like [1]. Research has indicated that the
uncanny valley effect also occurs in animation and games
when 3D characters resemble humans [2]. One potential
explanation for these feelings is that robots or animation
characters’ lack of nuanced, naturalistic movement causes
uneasiness or revulsion following unconvincing presenta-
tions likening them to actual humans [3]. This leads us to
conclude that interaction design between humans and ani-
mated characters is challenging and relies heavily on trial
and error.
Puppet performances take many forms around the world
[4], and even if the puppet looks like a human, it moves in
Ran Dong (researcher), School of Computer Science, Tokyo University of Technology,
Hachioji City, 东京, 日本. 电子邮件: randong@stf.teu.ac.jp.
Dongsheng Cai (researcher), 工程学院, Information and Systems,
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 日本. 电子邮件: cai@cs.tsukuba.ac.jp.
Shingo Hayano (researcher), Faculty of Letters, Tsuru University, Tsuru City,
Yamanashi, 日本. 电子邮件: hayano@tsuru.ac.jp.
Shinobu Nakagawa (researcher), Design Department, Osaka University of Arts,
Osaka City, 大阪, 日本. 电子邮件: shinobu@osaka-geidai.ac.jp.
Soichiro Ikuno (researcher), School of Computer Science, Tokyo University of
技术, Hachioji City, 东京, 日本. 电子邮件: ikuno@stf.teu.ac.jp.
参见https://direct.mit.edu/leon/issue/55/5 for supplemental files associated with
this issue.
such a way so as not to make the audience feel uncomfort-
有能力的. “Ningyo Jōruri Bunraku,” or simply “Bunraku,” is one
of Japan’s traditional performing arts involving puppets. 这是
recognized in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intan-
gible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In Bunraku, 有
three types of performers: (1) three ningyozukai (puppeteers)
who manipulate a single puppet, (2) a gidayū (chanter), 和
(3) a musician playing shamisen (a three-stringed Japanese
guitar) on one stage in a special puppet theater, as shown
in Fig. 1.
Bunraku has significant potential to prevent the uncanny
valley effect, as suggested by robotics professor Masahiro
Mori’s conceptual framing [5]. Mori argues that Bunraku
puppet movements resemble human movements more than
humanoid robots and avoid making people feel the discom-
fort common in the effect. Mori’s research also pointed out
that audiences tend to become absorbed in Bunraku in pup-
pet theater and thus might develop a considerable affinity for
the puppet. 所以, as discussed below, investigating the
interaction mechanism of Bunraku puppets may help us ap-
ply interaction design techniques to approaches by animators
and musicians in animated character design.
Bunraku plays often generate empathy and strong emo-
tions among the audience using a principle called Jo-Ha-Kyū
in Japanese—opening, 中间, and climax (结尾) in English—
which underlies the artistic modulation of music tempos in
traditional Japanese performances generally [6]. Jo-Ha-Kyū
is considered one of the critical contributors to Bunraku’s
resistance to the uncanny valley effect by the previous study.
在一个 2020 文章, Dong et al. proposed a method to generate
Jo-Ha-Kyū motions in robots using a convolutional autoen-
coder to train them to use only Bunraku puppet motions [7].
然而, in addition to motion (visual), 声音 (声音的) 还
plays an essential role in animation [8]. 此外, 那里
has been no technical study on the Jo-Ha-Kyū mechanism in
Bunraku performing techniques using synchronized music
and movements.
We analyzed the Jo-Ha-Kyū mechanism based on previ-
468 莱昂纳多, 卷. 55, 不. 5, PP. 468–474, 2022
https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_a_02250 ©2022 ISAST
Published under a Creative Commons International (抄送 4.0) 执照.
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
A
乙
如图. 1. (A) Bunraku puppet and puppeteers. (乙) Gidayū (chanter) on the left and shamisen player on the right. (© Ran Dong)
ous research [9,10]. As performance techniques in Bunraku
theater create Jo-Ha-Kyū patterns recursively and fractally,
we looked at puppet motions and music tempo in both
“long-term” Jo-Ha-Kyū—corresponding to the story level
or the development of the narrative—and “short-term” Jo-
Ha-Kyū, corresponding to the key-frame motion level (这
movements divided by beats (key-frame) of the gidayū and
shamisen), to devise a method of creating Jo-Ha-Kyū in 3D
character animation.
thE pRInCIplES oF jo-hA-ky ū In jAp AnESE
tRAdItIonAl ARt
European and American music uses the golden ratio to de-
sign instruments and create melody [11]. Japanese music uses
a similar frequency mechanism in instrument design as in-
struments as Western music [12]. 然而, while frequencies
in Western music tend toward the pitch standard (IE。, A440,
which is the standard pitch corresponding to 440 赫兹), Asian
音乐, like traditional Japanese music, has no pitch standard
and is indeterministic [13]. In American music, 频率
changes express emotions, while this is not the case in East-
ern music, such as Carnatic music in Asia [14]. 相比之下,
traditional Japanese music usually uses a rhythm or tempo
改变 (based on Jo-Ha-Kyū) instead of a pitch to generate
emotions from the audience [15,16].
Definition of Jo-Ha-Kyū principles
The present research focuses on rhythm and tempo because
these are the two most integral components with regard to
the art concept of Jo-Ha-Kyū and incorporate easily into
computer algorithms. Dramatic speed changes in the mu-
sic and corresponding choreography are defining features of
Jo-Ha-Kyū in Bunraku [17]. As shown in Fig. 2, each Jo, Ha,
and Kyū can be divided into smaller Jo, Ha, and Kyū. Short
intervals or breaks between the tempo modulations are called
Ma, which refers to the breaking of rhythm. 因此, 我们定义
Jo-Ha-Kyū here, in motion and music, at both the long-term
level corresponding to the story and the short-term level cor-
responding to the key-frame, which is the beat point of the
gidayū and shamisen.
Bunraku puppet Structure and Manipulation
Humans simultaneously use facial expressions, eye movements,
and gestures to express their feelings. Instead of facial expres-
西翁, Bunraku puppeteers express the puppet’s emotions using
their unique manipulation techniques utilizing Jo-Ha-Kyū [18].
One of the most complex components of the Bunraku pup-
pet is its head. As shown in Fig. 1, the master puppeteer uses
sophisticated controls to generate head motions to lead sub-
puppeteers to synchronize their puppet’s movements, 哪个
express various emotions [19]. The hip joint is the center of
the hierarchical body structure, which is the origin of the pup-
pet’s body movements. 所以, this paper primarily analyzes
the head and hip movements in a Jo-Ha-Kyū-based Bunraku
puppet performed by Kanjuro Kiritake, a top-ranking master
puppeteer certified as a Living National Treasure in Japan.
The gidayū (chanter) primarily controls the head move-
蒙特. To perform a Bunraku play using Jo-Ha-Kyū principles,
the gidayū has their tonal center, which changes and breaks
tempo according to story narration (jōruri). The gidayū modu-
lates the tempo to lead the entire performance, synchronizing
the puppets’ motions (choreography) and the shamisen music
(rhythm) to the narrative while interacting with the audience.
如图. 2. Schematic diagram explaining Jo-Ha-Kyū. Time is represented on the
x-axis, and the tempo is on the y-axis. (© Ran Dong)
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures 469
A
乙
如图. 3. (A) Time sequence of the angular velocities of head and hip joints.
(乙) Tempo in beats per minute (BPM) of the gidayū’s chanting. (© Ran Dong)
analyzing Jo-Ha-Kyū in Bunraku performance
This study focuses on a scene performed in Jo-Ha-Kyū called
“Sugisakaya,” from the famous Jōruri performance Imo-
seyama Onna Teikin (gidayū: Tsukoma Takemoto; shamisen:
Sosuke Takezawa; puppeteers: Kanjuro Kiritake and two oth-
呃). We adopted both optical and magnetic motion-capture
systems to obtain high-accuracy motion data. To capture the
tempo of the play, we use spectrogram analysis to detect beats
in the shamisen music and the gidayū’s chanting [20].
with the long-term tempo, so the puppet motions reflect the
Jo-Ha-Kyū principle.
Just as American and Japanese traditions historically have
different ways of evoking emotion through music [21], 他们
also have other mechanisms of choreography. Although there
are puppet theaters in European and American society [22],
in this study, to help identify the Jo-Ha-Kyū principles that
are typically expressed in Bunraku plays, we compared the
motion speeds (the combined angular velocities of both head
and hip) of the Bunraku puppet with those of a European
and American mechanism-based dance by the Japanese pop
trio Perfume. Perfume is known for its futuristic, robot-like
dancing in line with their musical style [23]. This compari-
son presents a potential method of instituting Jo-Ha-Kyū in
character animation.
数字 4 shows the angular velocities of the two main
点 (head and hip joints) in the choreography (160 秒-
onds in duration) for Perfume’s song Enter the Sphere, 哪个
is composed by Yasutaka Nakata and has a consistent tempo
measuring 130 beats per minute [24, 25].
As seen in Fig. 4, Perfume’s dancers are moving almost
constantly. Comparing Fig. 3 with Fig. 4 reveals that Per-
fume’s rate of motion is not significantly modulated, as are
Bunraku puppets. In Bunraku, the puppet motions largely
follow the tempo of the gidayū’s chants or narrations, 哪个
are continuously modulated [26]. European and American
mechanism-based dance performances do not change tem-
pos in short timeframes. In comparing Fig. 3 with Fig. 4, 它
can be concluded that the Bunraku puppet choreography fol-
lows Jo-Ha-Kyū throughout the “Sugisakaya” chapter. 在
同时, no Jo-Ha-Kyū can be found in the motion-speed
analysis of Perfume’s dance.
long-Term Jo-Ha-Kyū in Bunraku and perfume
Short-Term Jo-Ha-Kyū in Bunraku and perfume
Since Jo-Ha-Kyū patterns are recursive, we first analyzed
the full duration of the “Sugisakaya” chapter (totaling 140
seconds) to observe Jo-Ha-Kyū in the long term. Figure 3a
shows the time sequence of angular velocities, or joint rota-
tion speed, of the puppet’s head and hip joints. Figure 3b
shows the variations in tempo over time.
We use a five-second window (reflect-
ing the average length of the gidayū’s
chanting) moving average filter for both
selected motion sequence and music to
obtain average tempos.
We then analyzed the keyframed (gidayū and shamisen’s
beat segmented) Bunraku choreography data and com-
pared them with those of Perfume’s dance in the short term,
searching for indications of Bunraku techniques. Figure 5a
shows the four keyframed Bunraku movements for approxi-
As seen in Fig. 3, the angular ve-
locities of the motion and the tempo of
music can broadly be divided into three
Jo-Ha-Kyū parts, with two short breaks
(嘛) in between them. The correlation
coefficient, an index that measures the
strength (来自弱者 0.0 to strong 1.0)
of a linear relationship between two
数据, between the motion speed of the
puppet and the tempo of the music,
was r = 0.53. This indicates that puppet
movement in the scene is synchronized
如图. 4. The time sequence of the angular velocities of dancers’ head and hip joints in Perfume’s Enter the
领域. (© Ran Dong)
470 Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
A
C
乙
d
如图. 5. (A) Still from the two-second
clip of the Bunraku movement from the
“Sugisakaya” chapter. (乙) Change in
velocity of Bunraku head movement
over four keyframes. (C) Head motion
trajectories with their velocity vectors
projected onto the XY plane. (d) Head
motion trajectories with their velocity
vectors in 3D view. (© Ran Dong)
mately two seconds. Figure 5b shows the four keyframed
speed variations of the head, divided up by beats (垂直的
线). Figs 5c,d show the trajectory of these motions in 3D.
The different segmentations divided by beats correspond
to different keyframed movements. The size of the arrow
is proportional to the speed of action. As indicated in Figs
5b–d, the head speed changes at every keyframe. Figures 5c
and 5d show figure-8 trajectories, making it quite surpris-
ing that the directions and velocities of the arrow change
smoothly and continuously at every keyframe, even in a
two-second duration. It is also remarkable that each key-
frame length varies.
To analyze Jo-Ha-Kyū in the short term, we analyzed the
keyframed motions of Perfume’s choreography over 1.5 秒-
恩兹. Figure 6a shows three characters designed using the
3D animation software MikuMikuDance and based on Per-
fume’s motion capture data. Motion capture often provides
a poor anatomical fit (unable to precisely model the human
身体, such as bone shape and skeletal rotation angle) 与
corresponding models [27]. In Asia, European and American
mechanism-based dance motions are usually applied to these
cartoon characters known as “Japanese pop culture” instead
of realistic characters to avoid the uncanny. As the tempo of
European and American music does not often change over
时间, the length of time for each keyframe is mostly consis-
帐篷. As shown in Fig. 6b–d, the beats (vertical lines in Fig.
6乙) segmented the motion, and the average speed remained
nearly constant across keyframes.
Since the tempo of Perfume’s dance is relatively consistent,
the average speed of head movements does not change across
the keyframed motions (segmentations divided by beats in
如图. 6), making the difference between Jo-Ha-Kyū and non-
Jo-Ha-Kyū motions noticeable. It is also surprising that
Bunraku puppeteers can produce finely controlled affective
puppet’s movements. 所以, the Jo-Ha-Kyū principles
can be central to overcoming the uncanny valley effect with
representational character animation.
ChARACtER AnImA tIon dESIGn uSInG
jo-hA-ky ū pRInCIplES
To show that these principles can be used today, we apply Jo-
Ha-Kyū to a 3D character animation. 第一的, we demonstrated
the earlier results of professional musician Hiromi Shinoda
playing European and American mechanism-based percus-
锡安. 下一个, to verify that our results can help animators and
musicians to create more accurate character animations, 我们
asked the musician to create two new versions of the music of
“Sugisakaya,” one employing Jo-Ha-Kyū and another without.
数字 7 shows the spectrograms of the “Sugisakaya” chap-
ter recreated by Hiromi Shinoda. Figure 7a shows the spec-
trogram for the composition based on Jo-Ha-Kyū principles.
Since the tempo changes in both the short and the long term,
we can see that the beats are recursively distributed from the
Jo part to the Kyū part. 相比之下, 如图. 7b shows the new
“Sugisakaya” spectrogram without Jo-Ha-Kyū principles.
因此, the beat is constant compared to Fig. 7A.
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures 471
A
C
乙
d
如图. 6. (A) Still from a one-
and-a-half-second clip from
Perfume’s Enter the Sphere.
(乙) Velocity variation of the
dancers’ head motions over
four keyframes. (C) Trajectories
of dancers’ heads with velocity
vector arrows projected onto
the XY plane. (d) Trajectories of
head motions with their velocity
vector arrows in 3D view.
(© Ran Dong)
下一个, we applied the puppet motion-capture data to an ani-
mation character. Since the heroine in the “Sugisakaya” chap-
ter is a young girl, we choose Yuno Takasaki [28], a similarly
aged animation character designed in present-day CG style, 作为
shown in Fig. 8A. Figure 8b shows the character’s average head
motion speed divided by beats shown in Fig. 7A, where Jo-Ha-
Kyū was integrated and synchronized with the music. As seen
in Fig. 8乙, head speed changes in each beat interval, represent-
ing the development of keyframe motions, and arrows also
改变, representing the development of narratives. 因此,
short-term Jo-Ha-Kyū in keyframe motion formed long-term
Jo-Ha-Kyū at the story level. 然后, to verify the Jo-Ha-Kyū, 我们
created two animations using the same character movements
(如图. 8) with two different pieces of recreated (same Jo-Ha-Kyu
pattern but different melody, instrument, and narrative) pres-
ent day music style (如图. 7). Comparing the character anima-
tion with Jo-Ha-Kyū and without Jo-Ha-Kyū reveals that the
perception of specific emotions being expressed between the
two is entirely different. These results are significant for anima-
tors and musicians creating character animation.
A
乙
如图. 7. (A) Spectrogram of the new “Sugisakaya”
chapter recreated using present-day European and
American mechanism-based instruments using Jo-Ha-Kyū
原则. (乙) Spectrogram of the new “Sugisakaya”
chapter using present-day European and American
mechanism-based instruments without using Jo-Ha-Kyū
原则. (© Ran Dong)
472 Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
fume’s music and dance. Jo-Ha-Kyū prin-
ciples modulate the tempo structure of the
performance and thereby shape its affective
power according to the story. Our conclu-
sions can be summarized as follows:
• While European and American
mechanism-based dance motions
maintain consistent tempo and motion
speeds, Bunraku performances shift
continuously and smoothly to align the
emotions with the narrative.
• Bunraku puppets’ motions change
速度, synchronizing with the gidayū
chanting tempo and shamisen music
following Jo-Ha-Kyū. This allows the
puppeteers to adjust their movement
continuously and recursively following
the story. This makes possible
expressive puppet movements
throughout the entire play.
• Our 3D character animation results
using Jo-Ha-Kyū principles reveal that
our study could help designers create
Jo-Ha-Kyū in 3D character animation.
如图. 8. (A) Bunraku puppet in the “Sugisakaya” scene and character animation synchronized to
the contemporary version of the music based on Jo-Ha-Kyū principles. (乙) The average speed of the
character’s head motion in segments is divided by beats. Arrows indicate long-term Jo-Ha-Kyū.
(© Ran Dong)
ConCluSIonS
This study identifies Jo-Ha-Kyū principles that could be
implemented for 3D animation characters to avoid the un-
canny valley effect. We analyzed Jo-Ha-Kyū-based motions
of Japanese traditional puppet theatre, called Bunraku. 然后
we compared them with contemporary Japanese trio Per-
As the Jo-Ha-Kyū patterns of tempo and
motion in Bunraku techniques are only
based on experience, it is challenging to gen-
erate said techniques without the many years
of training that Bunraku puppet masters re-
ceive. 然而, our results demonstrate that
a professional designer could establish Jo-
Ha-Kyū by consulting our results. 虽然
our present research requires designers to
create Jo-Ha-Kyū motions and music manually, 可能是
possible to analyze Bunraku and European or American
puppet theaters to provide more nuanced comparisons
making possible AI automation that implements Jo-Ha-Kyū
原则.
acknowledgments
5 Mori et al. [1] PP. 98–100.
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers
JP16H01804, JP20K12525, JP20K23352, and JP21K17833.
6 K. Konparu, 能への誘い―序破急と間のサイエン (Invitation to
Noh — Science between Jo-Ha-Kyū and Ma), Tanko magazine (1980).
references and notes
1 中号. 森, K.F. MacDorman and N. Kageki, “The Uncanny Valley
[from the field],” IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 19, 不. 2,
98–100 (2012).
2 Angela Tinwell, The Uncanny Valley in Games and Animation (CRC
按, 2014).
3
Jeanine Breaker, “The Complexion of Two Bodies. Part One: Nuance
Drawn Out,” Leonardo 46, 不. 5, 425–431 (2013).
4 David Currell, Puppets and Puppet Theatre (Crowood, 2014).
7 右. Dong et al., “Robot Motion Design Using Bunraku Emotional
Expressions—Focusing on Jo-Ha-Kyū in Sounds and Movements,”
Advanced Robotics 34, 不. 5, 299–312 (2020).
8 Tinwell [2].
9 A. Tamba, The Musical Structure of Nō (Tokai Univ. 按, 1981).
10 A. Tamba,「序破急」という美学: 現代によみがえる日本音楽
の思考型 (The Beauty of “Jo-Ha-Kyū”: Japanese music thinking style
revives today), Ongaku no Tomo magazine (2004).
11 右. van Gend, “The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio
in Music,” Notes on Number Theory and Discrete Mathematics 20,
不. 1, 72–77 (2014).
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures 473
12 F.T. Piggott, “The Music of Japan,” Proceedings of the Musical Associa-
25 Songbpm, Perfume Enter The Sphere: songbpm.com/perfume/enter-
的, 18, 不. 1, 103–120 (1891).
the-sphere (访问过 23 二月 2019).
13 乙. Gómez and P. Herrera, “Comparative Analysis of Music Record-
ings from Western and Non-Western Traditions by Automatic Tonal
Feature Extraction,” Empirical Musicology Review 3, 不. 3 (2008).
26 Chieko Yamada, 義太夫節の語りにおける規範と変形 (Stan-
dards and transformations in narrations of Tayu) (Kyoto City Uni-
versity of the Arts, 2017).
14 D.L. Bowling et al., “Expression of Emotion in Eastern and Western
Music Mirrors Vocalization,” PloS One 7, 不. 3, e31942 (2012).
15 Tamba [9].
16 Tamba [10].
17 Dong et al. [7] PP. 299–312.
27 Breaker [3] PP. 425–431.
28 Yuno Takasaki: gugenka.jp/original/yuno-3d.php (访问过 23 的-
十二月 2020).
稿件收到 2 八月 2021.
18 右. Dong et al., “Interacting with Humanoid Robots: Affective Robot
Motion Design with 3D Squash and Stretch Using Japanese Jo-ha-
kyū Principles in Bunraku,” Proceedings of SIGGRAPH ’21 Talks
(2021).
ran donG is an assistant professor at Tokyo University of
技术, and his research is centered on computer graphics
and human-robot interaction.
19 S. Miyao, 宮尾しげをの本〈1〉文楽人形図譜 (The Book of Shigeo
Miyao <1> Bunraku Puppet Chart) (Kanosyobo, 1984).
20 Meinard Müller, Fundamentals of music processing: 声音的, 分析,
算法, applications (施普林格, 2015).
21 A.A. Darrow, 磷. 哈克, and F. Kuribayashi, “Descriptors and pref-
erences for Eastern and Western Music by Japanese and American
Nonmusic Majors,” Journal of Research in Music Education 35, 不.
4, 237–248 (1987).
22 Currell [4].
23 New Music Videos, Reality TV Shows, Celebrity News, Pop
Culture—MTV.
24 Perfume Global Site. Perfume Dance Motion: perfume-global.com
(访问过 17 八月 2014).
donGshenG CaI is an associate professor at University of
Tsukuba. His research field is computational science and art
媒体.
shInGo hayano is a professor at Tsuru University, 和他的
research field is Japanese linguistics.
shInoBu naKaGawa is a professor at Osaka University of
艺术, and he is currently researching robot design.
soIChIro IKuno is a professor at Tokyo University of Tech-
科学, and his research field is numerical simulation.
474 Dong et al., Investigating the Effect of Jo-Ha-Kyū on Music Tempos and Kinematics across Cultures
从http下载的://direct.mit.edu/leon/article-pdf/55/5/468/2045785/leon_a_02250.pdf by guest on 08 九月 2023
