气候 & 语言: - 麻省理工学院人工智能研究专业

气候 & 语言:
An Entangled Crisis

Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols &
Bernard C. Perley

Rising ocean levels threaten entire communities with relocation. The continued ero-
sion of Arctic coastlines due to melting ice sheets and thawing permafrost has forced
Inuit communities to move to more secure locations. Each move dislodges Indigenous
peoples and their languages from ancestral landscapes and ways of knowing, obli-
gating communities to adopt colonial or majority languages. Scholars and activists
have documented the intersections of climate change and language endangerment,
with special focus paid to their compounding consequences. We consider the relation-
ship between language and environmental ideologies, synthesizing previous research
on how metaphors and communicative norms in Indigenous and colonial languages
and cultures influence environmental beliefs and actions. We note that these academ-
ic discourses–as well as similar discourses in nonprofit and policy-making spheres–
rightly acknowledge the importance of Indigenous thought to environmental and cli-
mate action. Sadly, they often fall short of acknowledging both the colonial drivers of
Indigenous language “loss” and Indigenous ownership of Indigenous language and
environmental knowledge. We propose alternative framings that emphasize colonial
responsibility and Indigenous sovereignty. 最后, we reflect on emergent vitalities
and radical hope in Indigenous language movements and climate justice movements.

Peoples and entire communities are experiencing anguish and displace-

ment due to climate-related disasters. The proliferation of media imag-
es makes palpable a growing crisis that may engulf all of us. The shock on
people’s faces expresses the paralysis of trauma and the disbelief that “it could
happen to them.” Even in communities where there is no risk of “language
endangerment”–a problematic term, as Wesley Y. Leonard notes in his essay in
this volume–there is still a loss for words to describe the horror of displacement
and uncertainty.1 The entanglement between “climate” and “language” creates
a difficult challenge to tease apart as ideologies of language, climate change, 和
social justice are intertwined in unequal and unforgiving knots. One critical knot
to disentangle is the difference between our expectations of climate and our expe-

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riences of weather. Another is between our expectations of a just society and our
uneven experiences as citizens in a global system that favors some over others (作为
recently laid bare by the COVID-19 pandemic). The concurrent global crises of the
late twentieth century–global language endangerment and global warming–did
sound the alarm for many researchers and activists. These crises are intertwined,
with climate change driving language endangerment.2 However, well into the
third decade of the twenty-first century, we find little comfort in “awareness” of
these crises and greater discomfort in the slow violence of colonialism and the
endangerment of Indigenous languages, landscapes, cultures, and peoples.3 This
“imperial discomfort” is the disquieting perception that past injustice is buried
under current threats to social, 政治的, and economic privilege and security.4
所以, we contend that the knot that most needs to be disentangled is the cen-
turies of the slow violence of colonial systems that created the climate in which
we must bear the convulsions of everyday violence and upheaval, which continue
unabated. The harm that capitalists and colonists have wrought upon Indigenous
社区, along with their languages, cultures, and ways of knowing, is now
breaking colonial containment and starting to imperil all.

This essay identifies language, not as an artifact of human communication, 但
as a source of social action against this slow violence. We assert a positionality that
recognizes the inequities of the past as the fulcrum for actions in the present such
that the entanglements of language and climate will weave a framework for imag-
ining possible futures. This framework will lay the foundation for social justice as a
process of transformation to remediate the systemic violence of the world system.

L inguists and historians have noted that an early stage of imperialism often

creates an imagined new land as empty, or terra nullius (“virgin land”). 一次
“discovered” lands are given colonial names, this further creates an imag-
ined geography.5 Historian Tina Loo has noted several examples of this phenom-
enon in the Canadian context, where colonial names like the Strait of Georgia,
维多利亚, New Westminster, and Halifax recreated local places in the image of the
colonial homeland and connected them to an imperial whole.6

Place names are just one instance of this process of colonial displacement
and reimagining, which permeates every aspect of language use. 例如, 在
英语, we refer to living organisms such as trees through the pronoun “it.” In
Potawatomi, as author and botanist Robin Kimmerer explains, members of the
living world are categorized as animate, a similar effect to speaking about trees,
bays, and fruit as “he” or “she” in English, instead of “it.”7 Across languages, 一个-
imacy can be understood as a scale between humans at one end and inanimate
objects or abstract ideas at the other.8 The English categorization of many living
things as inanimate alienates them from humans, while the Potawatomi categori-
zation places them closer to us. In addition to this difference in animacy, 英语

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

uses more grammatically agentive forms for humans–portraying them as actors
rather than experiencers–and in so doing, represents them as primary.9

Metaphor reveals similar differences across Indigenous and colonial languages.
Scholars Matthew Rout and John Reid, 例如, contrast two main metaphors
for the more-than-human world: natural systems as “machines,” and more ani-
mistic ways of understanding these systems, often used in Māori discourse.10 They,
除其他外, argue that the metaphor of nature as a “machine” is deeply embed-
ded in English and European philosophy. Philosophers Silvi Funtowicz and Ângela
Guimarães Pereira, 例如, present an interpretation of Descartes’s Discourse
on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences as
holding that a complete understanding of the “machinery” of the biological world
would allow humanity to become “the masters and possessors of nature.”11

此外, scholars have pointed out that metaphors can often mediate sci-
entific concepts in a way that makes them more understandable to nonexpert au-
迪塞斯, while also affecting how those concepts are perceived.12 Ecolinguistics
scholar Arran Stibbe, 例如, has critiqued the metaphor of biodiversity as
a “library.”13 Apart from similar reasons to the ones critiqued below (那是, 那
such biodiversity exists for the benefit and extraction of humans), such metaphors
also imply that a few members of each species would be enough to achieve the pur-
pose of the species. 此外, in addition to the use of maladaptive metaphors
to describe the environment, metaphors of the environment have been harmfully
applied to Indigenous languages. Leonard notes that the metaphor of biological ex-
tinction can result in a macabre self-fulfilling prophecy of language “death.”14 Re-
latedly, Bernard C. Perley observes that this same biological metaphor of “saving”
endangered languages ascribes life to lifeless tape-recorded reproductions of In-
digenous language users’ voices, leading to a disjointed “zombie linguistics.”15

How we count things also plays a role in shaping environmental ideologies.
Linguist Michael Halliday points to potentially contributing grammatical fea-
tures like the use of mass nouns for finite resources, arguing that terms such as
“soil” and “water,” which are grammatically unbounded–unlike count nouns
such as “horse(s)” –convey an air of limitlessness that is counter to reality.16 Lin-
guist Saroj Chalwa goes even further, arguing that the linguistic fragmentation of
the mass, the quantification of intangibles, and the splitting of the perception of
time into past, 展示, and future all impact humans’ ability to perceive the natu-
ral environment as holistic and interconnected.17

In addition to these subtleties of meaning, the overall form and context of lan-
guage use influences our environmental perceptions and actions. Some scholars
propose that the removal of a language from its environmental context can re-
sult in more harmful environmental practices by divorcing it from the ecological
knowledge in which it arose.18 Similarly, in an extension of that argument not ac-
cepted by all linguists, David Abram maintains that the development of writing,

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis

which allowed the decontextualization of language, also led to harmful environ-
mental practices.19 Other scholars have observed that modern scientific writing,
尤其, uses forms that obscure agentive and affected participants; this fea-
ture makes this style of scientific writing ill-suited to recognizing the agents and
sufferers of environmental and climate injustice.20

The pitfalls of colonial language are evident, not only in how we conceptualize
the environment in general, but also in how we talk about climate change. 对于在-
姿态, mass media portrays climate change as uncertain through epistemic mark-
ers even as the effects of the climate crisis become more and more apparent; 这
hedging undermines the clarity of the scientific consensus around the climate cri-
sis.21 “Global warming” is inadequate to describe the complex repercussions of
climate change, while “climate change” evokes no specific consequences whatso-
曾经, and can even suggest that the climate is changing of its own accord.22 Terms
like “climate crisis” and “climate emergency” yield a greater sense of immedia-
cy and alarm, yet these terms, precisely because of their sense of immediacy, 风险
erasing the connections between the climate crisis and the crisis of colonial vio-
lence that Indigenous communities have endured for centuries.23 Humanist April
Anson analyzes these framings as “settler apocalypticism.”24 And the infamous
metaphor of the “carbon footprint”–the product of a marketing campaign by
British Petroleum (血压)–sets up a neoliberal framing of the climate crisis as a fail-
ure of individuals to be more environmentally conscious, thus distracting from
the evildoings of corporations like BP itself.25

In light of these and similar findings, linguist Peter Mühlhäusler and anthro-
pologist Adrian Peace argue that the “lexicon and grammar of individual languag-
es are the root causes of our environmental crisis.”26 Halliday calls on linguists to
“draw attention to it; to show how the grammar promotes the ideology of growth,
or ‘growthism.’”27 Of course, language does not completely determine thought:
climate movements have found ways to articulate their visions even through the
unwieldy medium of colonial language. This suggests the possibility and necessi-
ty of changing, as well as critically examining, our conceptualizations of climate
and the environment in colonial languages. We further suggest that, as part of this
overarching strategy of regenerative language use, settler scholars and activists
lend support to Indigenous communities who are reclaiming their languages–
without viewing those communities and languages through the same extractive
lens that got us into this mess in the first place.

R ecognizing the merits of Indigenous environmental ideologies (as encod-

ed in language) and the flaws of colonial ones, settler climate advocates
often propose to adopt Indigenous environmental knowledge and values
into predominantly settler-led climate movements. 例如, many prominent
mainstream environmental nonprofits, colloquially known as “big greens,” such

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

as Greenpeace, the World Wildlife Foundation, and the Nature Conservancy, 英语-
pouse the value of Indigenous knowledge for ecosystem conservation and climate
行动, and the White House Council on Environmental Quality issued a memo-
randum detailing the importance of Indigenous knowledge to policy- making.28
然而, settlers’ acknowledgment of the usefulness of Indigenous climate knowl-
边缘, while potentially decolonial, is not automatically so. Settlers who take up the
themes of Indigenous language, environmental knowledge, and climate action of-
ten do so in ways that 1) overlook the root causes of climate change and Indigenous
language loss (such as colonialism and extractive capitalism) 和 2) treat Indige-
nous languages and knowledges as universally owned property. 什么时候我们 (settlers)
speak only of Indigenous language “loss,” we erase the history of calculated colo-
nial violence and ignore its clear relationship with both Indigenous language en-
dangerment and the climate crisis. When we classify Indigenous environmental
knowledge as universal human heritage to be used against the climate crisis, 我们
frame this knowledge as a climate change lifeline to which we, as settlers, are enti-
tled to cling. As with terra nullius discourses, we render Indigenous people invisible
and inaudible in order to misappropriate their ideas, as well as their lands.

These convenient erasures of colonial and Indigenous agency recall anthropol-
ogist Jane H. Hill’s seminal work on “expert rhetorics” in endangered language
advocacy.29 Hill observes similar trends in how settler linguists and linguistic an-
thropologists communicate about Indigenous language endangerment, naming
the strategies of universal ownership, or “the assertion that endangered languages
in some sense ‘belong’ to everyone in the world,” and hyperbolic valorization, 这样的
as the comparison of Indigenous languages to “priceless treasures.” Building on
Hill’s critique, linguist Jenny L. Davis examines the strategies of linguistic extraction,
through which Indigenous languages and language movements are detached from
Indigenous people’s lives and experiences, and erasure of colonial agency, 通过
which the historical and present causes of Indigenous language shift are mini-
mized.30 Such strategies abound in endangered language advocacy; 例如,
在一个 2009 National Geographic video entitled Dying Languages, photographer and
filmmaker Chris Rainier comments, “Every two weeks, around the planet, a lan-
guage disappears. Completely disappears, forever and ever.”31

Metaphors of “disappearance” and “loss” obscure settler-colonizers’ delib-
erate destruction of Indigenous languages, lands, and livelihoods. 例如,
NDN Collective program officer PennElys Droz details George Washington’s
burning of Haudenosaunee seed houses, the United States’ slaughter of the buffa-
lo on which the Plains Nations relied for subsistence, and California settlers’ de-
struction of oak trees, noting that each of these examples constitutes “a cunning
way to suppress and control [Indigenous peoples].”32 Many scholars have docu-
mented how settler-colonizers analogously disrupted Indigenous languages, 文化-
特雷斯, and families by sending Indigenous children to abusive boarding schools

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis

in the United States and Canada.33 Often, colonial disruptions of Indigenous lan-
guage and land work in concert. 例如, forced migration displaces Indige-
nous people from their lands, interrupts environmental stewardship, and often
leads to language shift.34 Moreover, climate change itself can be understood as
both a result and accelerant of Indigenous environmental and linguistic dispos-
session: as colonizers have seized Indigenous land, they have displaced people
with long-standing knowledge of how to live sustainably on that land, 带来
with them a host of worldviews–the division of humans from nature, the myth
of consequence-less eternal growth, the totalizing view of lands and peoples as re-
sources to be extracted–that have driven the climate crisis.

The strategies of erasure of colonial agency and universal ownership are evi-
凹痕, not only in academic discourses of Indigenous environmental knowledge
and climate change, but also in the rhetoric of nonprofit organizing and policy-
制作. 这 1987 United Nations report on sustainable development (Our Com-
mon Future), 例如, employs both strategies in its discussion of the role of
Indigenous knowledge in the management of ecological systems.35

Tribal and indigenous peoples will need special attention as the forces of economic de-
velopment disrupt their traditional life-styles–life-styles that can offer modern soci-
eties many lessons in the management of resources in complex forest, mountain, 和
dryland ecosystems.36

These communities are the repositories of vast accumulations of traditional knowledge
and experience that links humanity with its ancient origins. Their disappearance is a loss
for the larger society, which could learn a great deal from their traditional skills in sus-
tainably managing very complex ecological systems.37

By referring to Indigenous communities as “repositories” of knowledge that
can “offer” modern societies (那是, in the committee’s view, non-Indigenous
社团) lessons in resource management, and from which the larger society
“could learn” a great deal, the committee paints Indigenous communities in a
passive light. This framing sidesteps conversations about Indigenous ownership
知识的, such as that developed in the Indigenous Data Sovereignty Move-
ment.38 The term “humanity” further suggests that Indigenous knowledge be-
longs to everyone. 此外, the phrases “disappearance” and “loss” erase
colonial agency for the disruption of traditional Indigenous knowledge transmis-
锡安. These insinuations of universal ownership and natural obsolescence mirror
the myth that Indigenous people did not own land before colonization–a false-
hood that many settlers were taught in school.39

Discourses of universal ownership and erasure of colonial agency are also
present in more recent discussions of Indigenous knowledge in relation to cli-
配偶改变. 例如, UNESCO’s statement on Indigenous knowledge and

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

climate change states that “Indigenous knowledge thus makes an important contri-
bution to climate change policy.”40 Similarly, a policy brief from the Water Gover-
nance Facility states that Indigenous knowledge “should be integrated in dominant
climate policies” and “offer solutions to both mitigation of and adaptation to cli-
mate change.”41 The relationship between Indigenous knowledge and dominant
science and policy is the subject of much dispute, and not all Indigenous people
feel that their knowledge should be “integrated” into the dominant paradigms.
例如, Eriel Tchekwie Deranger of Indigenous Climate Action has written
instead of “a world where Indigenous-led climate solutions are the standard and
where colonial structures are doing the work to figure out where their resources
and knowledge can offer support to existing Indigenous systems, not the other
way around.”42 Environmental justice scholar Kyle Whyte warns that, given the
breakdown of relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous societies
and governments, it may be too late to achieve Indigenous climate justice through
coordination with settler-led initiatives.43

In her discussion of the rhetoric of endangered language advocacy, Hill frames
her critique not as an attack on the character or motives of those engaged in said
宣传, but as a self-critical suggestion intended to hone existing rhetorical
strategies and not undermine their advocacy goals.44

同样地, we do not argue that the texts cited above–particularly the more re-
cent ones–are intentionally bolstering colonial worldviews in their discussions
of Indigenous knowledge and climate change, in which they make many com-
pelling points about the impacts of climate change on Indigenous people and the
specificity and rigor of Indigenous environmental knowledge. This is an unin-
tended consequence of the rhetoric that has become commonplace for describing
the relationship between climate and Indigenous language. Avoiding the language
of universal ownership and passive “loss” of Indigenous knowledge can strength-
en appeals for the consideration of Indigenous environmental knowledge in cli-
mate change policy. More agentive terms, such as ecocide, epistemicide, and lingui-
cide, may be helpful in acknowledging the intentionality and violence of colonial
incursions into Indigenous land and knowledge, though we note that some Indig-
enous linguists see such death-laden metaphors as ways of precluding Indigenous
linguistic and cultural survivance, preferring metaphors of language dormancy.45
The variety of perspectives on how to discuss Indigenous language vitality high-
lights the need to understand the preferences of individual Indigenous communi-
ties and community members.

L et us return to the heart-wrenching images of people displaced from their

homes by severe flooding, extreme wildfires, and unprecedented winter
storms. These images document the worsening environmental and climate
crises. The despair etched onto anguished faces in the moment of catastrophe is

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis

often followed in the media by graphic images and videos of victims as they sur-
vey the ruins of devastated landscapes and the debris that were once homes. 这些
tragic upheavals have become part of our everyday experience and have amplified
anxieties about our collective future. The immediacy of climate crises circulat-
ing in the media calls attention to the severity of the events and provokes con-
sideration of causes and mitigation strategies for future events. Lost in the public
display of devastation is the slow violence against Indigenous and at-risk popula-
tions over decades and centuries. The impulse to find some relief for recent vic-
tims of climate-related extreme weather events is laudable, but the inattention to
antecedent and ongoing threats to Indigenous and at-risk communities is uncon-
scionable. Equally unconscionable is the failure to recognize the collateral injus-
tice of language loss in the face of these climate disasters for Indigenous commu-
nities that have been grappling with these entangled catastrophes for centuries.

Mary Robinson, former president of Ireland and UN special envoy on climate
改变, writes: “But with the advance of climate change, common Yupik words
such as tagneghneq–used to describe dark, dense ice–are becoming obsolete as
Alaska’s melting permafrost turns the once solid landscape into a mushy, sodden
waste.”46 Robinson cautions, “Some experts warn that many coastal Alaskan vil-
lages will be completely uninhabitable by 2050, the year my eldest grandson, Rory,
and his burdened generation may be forced to reckon with the challenge of housing
tens of millions of climate refugees.”47 The looming humanitarian crisis Robinson
outlines is a projection of costs associated with anticipated outcomes of upheaval
resulting from climate change. Though Robinson uses Yupik as an example of col-
lateral loss due to climate change, she does not link language vitality as a social and
climate justice focus.48 Instead, she anticipates that Rory and his generation will
be “burdened” with challenges in the form of climate refugees. She does, 然而-
是, offer a personal reflection that may seem like hope: survival through resilience.

R obinson ends her account of the long-term global warming disaster in the

Arctic with a note of optimism by quoting her interlocutor, Patricia: “我们
have always been resilient, adaptive, creative, amazing people–which has
helped see us through the darkest times in the past. That resilience, that spirit,
will help us in the times yet to come.”49 Is this an evocation of hope? Patricia ex-
presses an embodied experience of resilience, and Robinson suggests her grand-
son’s generation may take solace in finding hope against the threat of ontological
vulnerability. Philosopher Jonathan Lear’s argument for radical hope is that “it is
directed toward a future goodness that transcends the current ability to under-
stand what it is. Radical hope anticipates a good for which those who have the
hope as yet lack the appropriate concepts with which to understand it.”50 Perhaps
Robinson quotes Patricia to suggest that we must be “resilient, adaptive, creative,
amazing people” if we are to imagine surviving the existential crises that climate

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

change can initiate. Absent from current media coverage of upheaval is the slow
violence of colonial processes that continue to undermine Indigenous worlds. 如果
there is a lesson from Indigenous pasts, it is that resilience and radical hope are
stances that take time to adapt to ontological vulnerability. Many at-risk com-
munities grapple with displacement and erasure of intimate knowledge of their
heritage landscapes.51 The slow violence of colonialism has disrupted the conti-
nuity of cultural knowledge, linguistic heritage, and social relations; the growing
silence is a reminder of the social injustice community members continue to en-
dure while trying to maintain community cohesion.52 The disintegration of lan-
guages from the richness of social interconnectedness (such as religion, ecologi-
cal knowledge, oral histories, and ceremonies) is paralleled by the disintegration
of interconnected forms of justice. Social justice must consider linguistic justice
as well as climate justice. These are not separate domains.

C limate disasters today share media space with the COVID-19 pandemic. 这

term “doom scrolling” reflects the preoccupation many experience in re-
gard to our collective ontological vulnerability. Social justice movements
also compete for our attention; the images and videos of protests, demonstrations,
and police violence outrage many citizens. Social justice has become the over-
arching call to action, alongside calls to mitigate the devastation related to climate
改变. Resilience may be our only option. Creative thinking offers some hope,
but hope is aspirational and implies delayed results. The vitality of many languages
continues to be undermined by processes that have contributed to the state of our
collective world. Returning to a “normal” that we imagine was in place in prepan-
demic times will be a return to the same system failures we have observed following
the pandemic. We need to conceptualize the present as the catalyst for possible fu-
特雷斯. In contrast to “doom scrolling,” we must actuate “emergent vitalities.” Such
a stance allows us to “promote vitalities in the present as they unfold in the inter-
subjective unfolding of being in the world.”53 Not only does this stance promote
language vitality, it also applies to imagining forms of climate justice as a transfor-
mative process that emphasizes equity over equality as a system of fairness.

W ave after wave of pathogens (smallpox) spread along the Massachusetts

coast between 1617 和 1619 and killed nine-tenths of the Indigenous
populations.54 Those losses of human life also contributed to the silenc-
ing of the Massachusett language and undermining of many others. 今天, wave af-
ter wave of COVID-19 has contributed to the entangled loss of Native American lives
and associated heritage languages. Some commentators characterize this moment
as the “new normal,” but for Indigenous peoples, this moment is the structural con-
tinuation of “the colonial normal.” The uneven costs of the pandemic are reflected
in the statistics suggesting that Native Americans between the ages of 40 和 64 suf-

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis

fered a mortality rate of 1 在 240, whereas the mortality rate for Hispanic people is
1 在 390, 1 在 480 for Black people, 和 1 在 1,300 for white people and for Asian peo-
普莱. COVID has threatened not only Native American lives, but Native American
languages as well.55 These losses are threaded into the weave of climate change and
the injustice of inaction by neoliberal regimes of extraction and exploitation.

A recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that
the uneven consequences of climate change expose the criminal injustice of failed
leadership.56 Writing about the report for The Washington Post, Sarah Kaplan and
Brady Dennis state, “The report makes clear, 然而, that averting the worst-
case scenarios will require nothing less than transformational change on a global
scale.”57 The prospect of transformational change must be entangled with trans-
formational justice. Language and climate justice is not an endpoint proposi-
的. 相当, it is a necessary realignment of discourses, commitments, 和社会的
movements. Promising in-progress climate and social justice actions include the
LandBack movement, the Red Deal, and the Red Black and Green New Deal.58 Are
these actions enough? Do they represent transformative justice or are they isolat-
ed convulsions of conscience-cleansing before “returning to normal”? We offer
this provocation: Returning to normal is a dead end for all of us. Perhaps it is time
to think about climate and justice in Indigenous terms. Philosopher and environ-
mental law scholar Laura Westra writes, “It is obvious, and largely undisputed in
international and domestic law, that justice for aboriginal communities starts with
environmental justice: not only their right to the historical territories and lands
they have occupied, 但, equally, if not more important, with the ecological health
of those lands.”59 Now is not the time to return to normal. Now is the time to
evoke the common Yupik words such as tagneghneq, not as a lamentation of lost
words and environments, but as a reminder it will take our collective wisdom to
imagine justice that transforms our world as entangled modes of being.

Instead of concluding this essay with a full stop, we propose that settler climate
advocates do not shy away from calling for more recognition of Indigenous cli-
mate wisdom, and keep the following principles in mind as they do so:

1. Name colonialism, and the historic and present actors thereof, as a driver

of both the climate crisis and Indigenous language shift;

2. Support Indigenous-led climate actions and policies, not just ones that draw

on Indigenous knowledge;

3. Acknowledge Indigenous sovereignty over Indigenous language and envi-

ronmental knowledge; 和

4. Cite Indigenous thinkers’ perspectives on Indigenous language, environ-

mental knowledge, and the climate crisis in general.

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

about the authors

Julia C. Fine is a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow at The College
of Saint Benedict and Saint John’s University. She is a sociocultural linguist focus-
ing on language and climate justice. She has recently published in such journals as
Frontiers in Communication, Journal of Sociolinguistics, and Environmental Communication.

Jessica Love-Nichols is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Linguistics at Macalester
大学. Her research focuses on gender, 班级, and regional identities as well as
how these identities interact with other ideologies. She has recently published in
such journals as Environmental Communication, Journal of Sociolinguistics, and Communi-
cation Research.

Bernard C. Perley is Director of the Institute for Critical Indigenous Studies and
Associate Professor at the University of British Columbia. An Indigenous anthro-
pologist and scholar with expertise in linguistic anthropology, visual anthropol-
奥吉, and First Nations/Native American and Indigenous studies, he is the author
of Defying Maliseet Language Death: Emergent Vitalities of Language, Culture, and Identity in
Eastern Canada (2011) and creator of the cartoon series Having Reservations, which ex-
plores humor as a means of healing historical trauma.

尾注

1 Wesley Y. Leonard, “Refusing ‘Endangered Languages’ Narratives,” Dædalus 152 (3)
(夏天 2023): 69–83, https://www.amacad.org/publication/refusing-endangered
-languages-narratives.

2 Christopher P. Dunn, “Climate Change and Its Consequences for Cultural and Language
Endangerment,” in The Oxford Handbook of Endangered Languages, 编辑. Kenneth L. Rehg
and Lyle Campbell (牛津: 牛津大学出版社, 2017); and Anastasia Riehl, “这
Impact of Climate Change on Language Loss,” The Conversation, 十一月 26, 2018,
https://theconversation.com/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-language-loss-105475.
3 Rob Nixon, Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor (剑桥, 大量的。: 哈佛

大学出版社, 2011).

4 Bernard C. Perley, “Gaming the System: Imperial Discomfort and the Rise of Coyote Cap-
ital,” in After Capital: Horizons of Finance, Culture, and Citizenship, 编辑. Kennan Ferguson and
Patrice Petro (New Brunswick, 新泽西州: Rutgers University Press, 2016).

5 Edward W. Saïd, Orientalism (纽约: Vintage Books, 1979); and Mary E. Stuckey and
约翰·M. 墨菲, “By Any Other Name: Rhetorical Colonialism in North America,”
American Indian Culture and Research Journal 25 (4) (2001): 73–98, https://doi.org/10.17953/
aicr.25.4.m66w143xm1623704.

6 Tina Loo, “Making a Modern Wilderness: Conserving Wildlife in Twentieth-Century
加拿大,” Canadian Historical Review 82 (1) (2001): 91–121, https://doi.org/10.3138CHR
.82.1.91.

7 Robin Wall Kimmerer, “Learning the Grammar of Animacy,” Braiding Sweetgrass: Indig-
enous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (明尼阿波利斯: Milkweed Edi-
系统蒸发散, 2013), 66–80. Third-person personal pronouns in English use both gender and

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis

animacy categories, but in this case the animacy category is not purely defined as en-
dowed with life, but rather focuses on a more specific “human” category further up the
animacy hierarchy. Humans are referred to as “he” or “she” when the gender is known,
and “they” when it is unknown. Most nonhuman entities are referred to by “it” regard-
less of sex. Some nonhuman entities also have special animacy status, often animals
most adjacent to humans such as pets or other domesticated animals, and some very
specific inanimate objects. See Michael Silverstein, “Hierarchy of Features and Erga-
活力,” in Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages, 编辑. 右. 中号. 瓦. 狄克逊 (堪培拉:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Languages, 1976), 112–171.

8 Virve-Anneli Vihman and Dianne Nelson, “Effects of Animacy in Grammar and Cogni-
的: Introduction to Special Issue,” Open Linguistics 5 (1) (2019): 260–267, https://土井
.org/10.1515/opli-2019-0015.

9 Michael Halliday, “New Ways of Meaning: The Challenge to Applied Linguistics,” 在
Ecolinguistics Reader: 语言, Ecology, and Environment, 编辑. Alwin Fill and Peter Mühlhäusler
(伦敦: Continuum, 2001), 175–202.

10 Matthew Rout and John Reid, “Embracing Indigenous Metaphors: A New/Old Way of
Thinking about Sustainability,” Sustainability Science 15 (3) (2020): 945–954, https://土井
.org/10.1007/s11625-020-00783-0.

11 René Descartes, Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth
in the Sciences (1637), 反式. Jonathan Bennett (2007), available at Early Modern Texts,
https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/descartes1637.pdf; and Silvi Funto-
wicz and Ângela Guimarães Pereira, “Cartesian Dreams,” in Science, Philosophy and Sus-
tainability: The End of the Cartesian Dream, 编辑. Silvio Funtowicz and Ângela Guimarães
佩雷拉 (伦敦: 劳特利奇, 2015), 1–9.

12 Stewart T. A. Pickett and Mary L. Cadenasso, “The Ecosystem as a Multidimensional
概念: 意义, 模型, and Metaphor,” Ecosystems 5 (1) (2002): 1–10, https://土井
.org/10.1007/s10021-001-0051-y; and Es Väliverronen and Iina Hellsten, “From ‘Burning
Library’ to ‘Green Medicine’: The Role of Metaphors in Communicating Biodiversity,”
Science Communication 24 (2) (2002): 229–245, https://doi.org/10.1177/107554702237848.
13 Arran Stibbe, “The Discursive Construction of Biodiversity,” in Language, Signs and Nature:
Ecolinguistic Dimensions of Environmental Discourse, 编辑. Martin Döring, Hermine Penz, 和
Wilhelm Trampe (柏林: Verlag, 2008).

14 Leonard, “Refusing ‘Endangered Languages’ Narratives,” 79.
15 Bernard C. Perley, “Zombie Linguistics: Experts, Endangered Languages and the Curse of
Undead Voices,” Anthropological Forum 22 (2) (2012), https://doi.org/10.1080/00664677
.2012.694170.

16 Halliday, “New Ways of Meaning.”
17 Saroj Chalwa, “Linguistic and Philosophical Roots of Our Environmental Crisis,” Environ-
mental Ethics 13 (3) (1991): 253–262, https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics199113312.
18 David Abram, The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World
(纽约: Pantheon Books, 1996); Peter Mühlhäusler, “Linguistic Adaptation to
Changed Environmental Conditions: Some Lessons from the Past,” in Sprachökologie
und Ökolinguistik, 编辑. Alwin Fill (蒂宾根: Stauffenburg Linguistik, 1996), 105–130; 和
Peter Mühlhäusler, Language of Environment, Environment of Language: A Course in Ecolinguis-
抽动症 (伦敦: Battlebridge, 2003).

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152 (3) Summer 2023Julia C. Fine, Jessica Love-Nichols & Bernard C. Perley

19 Abram, The Spell of the Sensuous.
20 Andrew Goatly, “Green Grammar and Grammatical Metaphor, or Language and the
Myth of Power, or Metaphors We Die By,” Journal of Pragmatics 25 (4) (1996): 537–560,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(95)00057-7.

21 Adriana Bailey, Lorine Giangola, and Maxwell T. Boykoff, “How Grammatical Choice
Shapes Media Representations of Climate (和)Certainty,” Environmental Communication
8 (2) (2014): 197–215, https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2014.906481.

22 Jonathan P. Schuldt, Sara H. Konrath, and Norbert Schwarz, “‘Global Warming’ or ‘Cli-
mate Change’? Whether the Planet Is Warming Depends on Question Wording,” Pub-
lic Opinion Quarterly 75 (1) (2011): 115–124, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1093/poq/
nfq073.

23 Daryl Baldwin, Margaret Noodin, and Bernard C. Perley, “Surviving the Sixth Extinction:
American Indian Strategies for Life in the New World,” in After Extinction, 编辑. 理查德
Grusin (明尼阿波利斯: 明尼苏达大学出版社, 2018), 201–232.

24 April Anson, “The President Stole Your Land: Public Lands and the Settler Commons,”
Western American Literature 54 (1) (2019): 49–62, https://doi.org/10.1353/wal.2019.0019.
25 Rebecca Solnit, “Big Oil Coined ‘Carbon Footprints’ to Blame Us for Their Greed, Keep
Them on the Hook,” The Guardian, 八月 23, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/
commentisfree/2021/aug/23/big-oil-coined-carbon-footprints-to-blame-us-for-their
-greed-keep-them-on-the-hook.

26 Peter Mühlhäusler and Adrian Peace, “Environmental Discourses,” Annual Review of Anthro-
道歉 35 (1) (2006): 457–479, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123203.

27 Halliday, “New Ways of Meaning.”
28 Greenpeace, “Indigenous Peoples,” https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/challenges/forests
/indigenous-peoples (accessed August 12, 2022); The Nature Conservancy, “Indige-
nous Peoples and Local Communities,” https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/
our-insights/indigenous-peoples-local-communities (accessed August 12, 2022); 世界
Wildlife Foundation, “WWF’s Commitment to Local and Indigenous Communities,”
https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/wwf-s-commitment-to-local-and-indigenous
-社区 (accessed August 12, 2022); and Office of Science and Technology Poli-
赛, Executive Office of the President, “Memorandum on Indigenous Traditional Eco-
logical Knowledge and Federal Decision Making,“ 十一月 15, 2021, https://万维网
.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/111521-OSTP-CEQ-ITEK-Memo.pdf.
29 Jane H. 爬坡道, “‘Expert Rhetorics’ in Advocacy for Endangered Languages: Who Is Listen-
英, and What Do They Hear?” Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 12 (2) (2002): 119–133,
https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.2002.12.2.119.

30 Jenny L. 戴维斯, “Resisting Rhetorics of Language Endangerment: Reclamation through
Indigenous Language Survivance,” Language Documentation and Description 14 (2017): 37–
58, https://doi.org/10.25894/ldd147.

31 For more on language extinction narratives and advocacy, see Leonard, “Refusing ‘En-

dangered Languages’ Narratives,” 73.

32 Jade Begay, “An Indigenous Systems Approach to the Climate Crisis,” Stanford Social Inno-

vation Review, 六月 10, 2021, https://doi.org/10.48558/DQWT-XQ29.

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33 Teresa L. McCarty, “Between Possibility and Constraint: Indigenous Language Educa-
的, Planning, and Policy in the United States,” in Language Policies in Education: Criti-
cal Issues, 编辑. James W. Tollefson (莫瓦, 新泽西州: 埃尔鲍姆, 2002), 285–307; Jane Grif-
fith, “Of Linguicide and Resistance: Children and English Instruction in Nineteenth-
Century Indian Boarding Schools in Canada,” Paedagogica Historica 53 (6) (2017): 763–782,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2017.1293700; and Jon Reyhner, “American Indian
Boarding Schools: What Went Wrong? What Is Going Right?” Journal of American Indian
教育 57 (1) (2018): 58–78, https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0058.

34 Paul Kerswill, “Migration and Language,” Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik: An International
Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, 体积 3, 编辑. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert
Ditt mar, Klaus J. Mattheier, and Peter Trudgill (柏林: De Gruyter, 2006), 1–27.
35 Julian Inglis, 编辑。, Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases (Ottawa: 国际的

Development Research Centre, 1993), 添加了强调.

36 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (日内瓦:
联合国, 1987), 19, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/
5987our-common-future.pdf.

37 同上。, 98.
38 Tahu Kukutai and John Taylor, Indigenous Data Sovereignty: Toward an Agenda (堪培拉:
Australian National University Press, 2016); and Maggie Walter and Michele Suina,
“Indigenous Data, Indigenous Methodologies and Indigenous Data Sovereignty,” 国际米兰-
national Journal of Social Research Methodology 22 (3) (2019): 233–243, https://doi.org/10.1
080/13645579.2018.1531228.

39 Livia Gershon, “是的, Americans Owned Land before Columbus,” JSTOR Daily, 行进 4,

2019, https://daily.jstor.org/yes-americans-owned-land-before-columbus.

40 UNESCO, “Indigenous Knowledge and Climate Change,” last updated June 14, 2023,

https://en.unesco.org/links/climatechange.

41 UNDP-SIWI Water Governance Facility, “Climate, Water, and Resilience: Indigenous
Knowledge Matters,“ 六月 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20210417015112/https://
www.watergovernance.org/news/climate-water-and-resilience-indigenous-knowledge
-事情 (accessed October 11, 2022).

42 Indigenous Climate Action, “Decolonizing Climate Policy,” https://www.indigenous
climateaction.com/programs/decolonizing-climate-policy (accessed October 11, 2022).
43 Kyle Whyte, “Too Late for Indigenous Climate Justice: Ecological and Relational Tipping

Points,” WIREs Climate Change 11 (1) (2020), https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.603.

44 爬坡道, “Expert Rhetorics.”
45 Wesley Y. Leonard, “When Is an ‘Extinct Language’ Not Extinct? Miami, a Formerly
Sleeping Language,” in Sustaining Linguistic Diversity: Endangered and Minority Languages and
Language Varieties, 编辑. Kendall A. 国王, Natalie Schilling, Lyn Wright Fogle, 等人. (Wash-
因顿, 华盛顿特区: Georgetown University Press, 2008), 23–33.

46 Mary Robinson, 气候正义: Hope, 弹力, and the Fight for a Sustainable Future (伦敦:

布卢姆斯伯里出版社, 2018).

47 同上.

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48 Bernard C. Perley, “Last Words, Final Thoughts: Collateral Extinctions in Maliseet Lan-
guage Death,” in The Anthropology of Extinction, 编辑. Genese Marie Sodikoff (布卢明顿:
Indiana University Press, 2012).

49 罗宾逊, 气候正义.
50 Jonathan Lear, Radical Hope: Ethics in the Face of Cultural Devastation (剑桥, 大量的。:

哈佛大学出版社, 2006).

51 Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Romaine, Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World’s Languages
(牛津: 牛津大学出版社, 2000); Luisa Maffi, 编辑。, On Biocultural Diversity: Link-
ing Language, 知识, and the Environment (华盛顿, 华盛顿特区: 史密森学会
按, 2001); and K. David Harrison, When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World’s Lan-
guages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge (牛津: 牛津大学出版社, 2007).

52 Nixon, Slow Violence.
53 Bernard C. Perley, Defying Maliseet Language Death: Emergent Vitalities of Language, Culture, 和

Identity in Eastern Canada (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011).

54 Donald R. 霍普金斯, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (芝加哥: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1983). Quoted in Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival:
A Population History Since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 71.

55 Jodi Archambault, “How Covid-19 Threatens Native Languages,” The New York Times,
一月 24, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/24/opinion/covid-lakota-language
.html. See also Dan Keating, Akilah Johnson, and Monica Ulmanu “The Pandemic Marks
Another Grim Milestone: 1 在 500 Americans Have Died of COVID-19,” The Washington
邮政, 九月 15, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/interactive/2021/
1-in-500-covid-deaths.

56 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Sixth Assessment Report Working Group II,
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability–Summary for Policymakers (基因-
va: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022), https://www.ipcc.ch/report/
ar6/wg2. UN Secretary General António Guterres stated, “This abdication of leadership
is criminal”; see Sarah Kaplan and Brady Dennis, “Humanity Has a ‘Brief and Rap-
idly Closing Window’ to Avoid a Hotter, Deadly Future, UN Climate Report Says,”
The Washington Post, 二月 28, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate
-environment/2022/02/28/ipcc-united-nations-climate-change-adaptation.

57 Kaplan and Dennis, “Humanity Has a ‘Brief and Rapidly Closing Window’ to Avoid a

Hotter, Deadly Future.”

58 For more on these actions, see NDN Collective, “LandBack,” https://landback.org (交流电-
cessed October 11, 2022); The Red Nation, The Red Deal: Indigenous Action to Save Our Earth
(纽约: Common Notions, 2021); and The Movement for Black Lives, “Red Black
and Green New Deal,” https://redblackgreennewdeal.org (accessed October 11, 2022).
59 Laura Westra, Environmental Justice and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: International and Do-

mestic Legal Perspectives (纽约: EarthScan, 2008).

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代达罗斯, 美国艺术学院学报 & SciencesClimate & 语言: An Entangled Crisis
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