Can Remote Virtual Simulation
Improve Practice-Based Training?
Presence and Performance in
Incident Commander Education
Cecilia Hammar
Wijkmark*
Western Norway University of
Applied Sciences/The Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency
Ilona Heldal
Maria-Monika Metallinou
Western Norway University of
Applied Sciences
抽象的
An incident commander (IC) is expected to take command in any incident to miti-
gate consequences for humans, 财产, and the environment. To prepare for this,
practice-based training in realistic simulated situations is necessary. Usually this is con-
ducted in live simulation (LS) at dedicated (physical) training grounds or in virtual sim-
计算 (VS) situations at training centers, where all participants are present at the
same geographical space. COVID-19-induced restrictions on gathering of people mo-
tivated the development and use of remote virtual simulation (RVS) solutions. 这
article aims to provide an increased understanding of the implementation of RVS in
the education of Fire Service ICs in Sweden. Data from observations, questionnaires,
and interviews were collected during an RVS examination of two IC classes (43 par-
ticipants) following an initial pilot study (8 参与者). Experienced training values,
在场, and performance were investigated. The results indicated that students ex-
perienced higher presence in RVS, compared with previous VS studies. This is likely
due to the concentration of visual attention to the virtual environment and well-acted
verbal counterplay. Although all three training methods (LS, VS, and RVS) are valuable,
future research is needed to reveal their respective significant compromises, com-
pared with real-life incidents.
1
介绍
Practice-based training in vocational education must be better supported
for individuals to be prepared to work directly after completing the education
(克莱顿 & 哈里斯, 2018). Several organizations, particularly in health, archi-
结构, product development, and emergency management, utilize virtual sim-
计算 (VS) for such training. According to a meta-review examining 2,582
文件, the effectiveness of virtual training is often comparable to the effective-
ness of live simulation (LS) training but sets additional requirements on users
and settings (卡普兰等人。, 2020). Apart from a few examples from health and
laboratory studies, the literature has not explored practice-based training in
remote settings (Heradio et al., 2016; Vaughan, Dubey, Wainwright, & 中-
dleton, 2016). Current VS training in remote settings is case-based, focusing
on certain scenarios and discussions, manipulating documents, or watching
and sharing pictures and videos. Although this training is valuable for some
*Correspondence to Cecilia.Hammar.Wijkmark@hvl.no.
Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 127
Presence, 卷. 28, 冬天 2019, 127–152
https://doi.org/10.1162/PRES_a_00346
© 2021 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
根据知识共享署名发布 4.0
国际的 (抄送 4.0) 执照.
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128 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
exercises, it may not be sufficient to prepare students
for work requiring technical and non-technical compe-
tencies and the skills to manage emergency situations.
There is a significant difference between discussing what
should be done in an imagined emergency situation and
performing in a simulated incident. During LS at a fire
academy training ground, incident commander (IC) stu-
dents must apply knowledge and skills while being situ-
ated in a believable, relevant context that resembles an
incident in society. In numerous organizations, exercises
in LS are considered “the gold standard.”
Virtual reality (VR) 环境 (incorporating
computer-simulated objects, avatars, and interaction
properties and involvement) (Lombard & Ditton, 1997)
allow high presence in the virtual environment. Presence
refers to the perceived sense of “being there,” the extent
to which people “experience the virtual environments as
more the presenting reality than the real world” around
他们 (Slater, Usoh, & Steed, 1994, p.130). Presence of-
ten can be associated with improved performance (Slater
& 威尔伯, 1997) and greater learning goal achievement
(Hoffmann, Meisen, & Jeschke, 2016; Young, Stehle,
Walsh, & Tiri, 2020). The relation between the chosen
VR technology, 在场, and learning influences the
experience and performance (罗伯茨, Heldal, Otto,
& Wolff, 2006; Schroeder et al., 2001). More immer-
sive technologies may contribute to higher presence,
but they do not necessarily have positive impacts on
学习 (Makransky, Terkildsen, & Mayer, 2019). Non-
immersive technologies may hinder smooth collabora-
tion because of the limited workplace and “fragmenta-
tion” of the work area due to screen sizes and windows,
among other aspects (Hindmarsh, 弗雷泽, Heath, 本-
福特, & Greenhalgh, 1998). Fragmentation is different
in immersive VR, the experience can be still influenced
by disturbances from technical devices; 例如, 加州-
布莱斯, 3D glasses, or a lack of understanding of others’
情况 (Heldal et al., 2005; Slater, Brogni, & Steed,
2003).
While progressing from investigating technologies in
laboratories to their real-life implementation, it is cru-
cial to assess the expected benefits of the technologies.
The process of choosing VR technologies and appli-
阳离子, establishing them, and using them for train-
ing practitioners has seldom been studied in practical
settings. The fidelity in the simulation must be suffi-
cient to achieve a presence comparable with experi-
ences acquired in real environment (Pillai, 施密特, &
Richir, 2013). Visual photorealism, particularly in im-
mersive technologies, is associated with higher costs;
然而, it may not be associated with higher training
效力 (Stevens & Kincaid, 2015). The organi-
zations using LS with real objects on training grounds
or in simulation centers interested in VS and remote
virtual simulation (RVS) may lack knowledge of which
technologies and levels or aspects of photorealism are
needed for effective training (Frøland, Heldal, Sjøholt,
& Ersvær, 2020; Heldal, Fomin, & Wijkmark, 2018;
Radianti, Majchrzak, Fromm, & Wohlgenannt, 2020).
While advanced technologies may be used at dedi-
cated training centers, remote simulations require ac-
cessible, affordable, intuitive, and reliable technologies
(Di Natale, Repetto, Riva, & Villani, 2020).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, it has proven dif-
ficult to conduct practice-based training and assessment
activities while maintaining social distancing. 康塞-
经常地, it has become challenging to educate and assess
the performance of Fire Safety ICs. Using innovative
solutions such as VR has become increasingly relevant
to bridge educational gaps (Hammar Wijkmark, Hel-
dal, Fankvist, & Metallinou, 2020; Jnr, 2020; Yiasemi-
dou, Tomlinson, Chetter, & Shenkar, 2021). Due to the
pandemic, VR training is now most valuable when con-
ducted remotely. 然而, introducing RVS for training
can be difficult, particularly for safety-critical situations
requiring practical competencies and skills.
This article investigates the introduction of RVS for
practice-based training and final examination of ICs in
瑞典. Data were collected during the practical imple-
mentation of RVS at the Swedish Civil Contingencies
机构 (Myndigheten för Samhällsskydd och Bered-
skap, MSB), the organization responsible for educating
firefighters and ICs. Practice-based IC training in Swe-
den is typically undertaken on the training ground in
LS settings and has been supplemented by on-site VS
自从 2017. RVS-based training was considered a nec-
essary step after VS due to the COVID-19 pandemic
throughout 2020. The process of implementation was
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 129
investigated through data collected from observations,
questionnaires, and interviews with students and instruc-
托尔斯, as well as the students’ performance assessed by
instructors. The approach was guided via an action re-
search strategy (Baskerville, 1999) focusing on three cy-
克莱斯: (1) a pilot study to examine the feasibility of using
RVS for training and assessment in April 2020, (2) 这
implementation of RVS for the examination of one class
in April and May 2020 (RVS1), 和 (3) an improved im-
plementation of RVS for the examination of one class in
November and December 2020 (RVS2).
The overall aim of this article is examining the role of
RVS for practice-based training for experiencing training
价值观. This will be achieved via answering the following
research questions:
RQ 1 How is presence experienced in RVS for practice-
based training?
RQ 2 How is the collaboration between students and
instructors experienced in RVS?
RQ 3 What are the most important aspects influencing
presence in relation to the used technical settings?
RQ 4 What are the main added values and limitations of
RVS?
The results will provide a better understanding of the
utilization of RVS and VS technologies to support prac-
tical training situations. It informs practitioners orga-
nizing educational modules of remote practice-based
training and research on different training modes. 乙酰胆碱-
cording to our present knowledge this article provides
an account of the first remote examination regarding
practical training for IC qualification on an international
基础.
This article is structured as follows: 部分 2 的-
scribes basic concepts from VR and presence literature
and their influence on understanding the practical train-
ing for ICs. 部分 3 outlines the study design and
used technologies. 部分 4 presents the results and
addresses the research questions. 部分 5 discusses
the findings and compares the results of RVS training
and assessment with results from previous studies us-
ing LS and VS in the same context. The article ends
with conclusions and suggestions for future research in
部分 6.
This study was conducted in the Swedish context,
in relation to resources, technical settings, educational
结构, competency, and economic and organiza-
tional preconditions. The results of this study may not
be transferrable to other settings, such as locations with
lower bandwidth or different educational structures. 一个
overview of the first steps (Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal,
等人。, 2020) and a discussion of the cognitive aspects of
such examinations (Hammar Wijkmark, Metallinou, &
Heldal, 2021) were presented earlier.
Experiencing Training Values via
2
Different Training Methods
This section outlines the basic concepts and defi-
nitions used in this research and the educational context
for acquiring IC qualification. It also includes relevant
research from the VR research domain, with a focus on
在场, 表现, and learning related to emer-
gency management education. How IC students and
their instructors experience practice-based training in
RVS and the current main training formats (LS- 和
VS-based training) is presented here.
2.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions
As there are different definitions of the terms Vir-
tual Reality (VR) 环境, 在场, and immersion
in research, the definitions and basic concepts used in
the present article must be specified. Virtual Simula-
的 (VS) is in this work synonymous with VR, a three-
dimensional model of the real world, abstract objects,
or data where the user can control motion and orienta-
tion and interact according to specified rules. Numerous
VR definitions distinguish presence from immersion,
namely the experienced involvement from the techni-
cal properties needed to produce a surrounding experi-
恩斯 (施罗德, Heldal, & Tromp, 2006; Slater et al.,
1994). 因此, the technologies examined in this
article are non-immersive virtual environments used in
a mixed reality setting (参见章节 3.2). By practice-
based training in remote locations, this article refers to
activities that allow participants to communicate, 分享
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130 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
a virtual representation of environments, 相互影响, 和
cooperate remotely. Cooperation refers to more than
sharing pictures, 视频, and other digital materials; 它
allows participants co-manipulate representations, 分享
viewpoints, and interact, much like in computer games.
This enables participants to gain skills and competencies
in preparation for related real-life work situations, 哪个
is an important part of practice-based training. Today’s
computer games, including many serious games (游戏
supporting learning or work, and not leisure) often use
elements to better support surrounding, immersive ex-
periences. 然而, immersiveness alone is not enough,
serious games often lack pedagogical strategy and ev-
idence of learning outcomes; 像这样, they are seldom
fully integrated into education (Gorbanev et al., 2018;
于, 高, & 王, 2021).
2.1.1 The Context of This Study: Incident Com-
mander Education. The ICs in the first (lowest) 等级
of the command chain are often the first officers to ar-
rive at the scene of an incident and are thus responsi-
ble for decisions regarding the first mitigating actions
和, 如果需要的话, requesting further resources. The IC
is expected to assess the situation, gather and interpret
信息, and determine, communicate, and imple-
ment a plan to effectively and safely organize rescue re-
sources and mitigate the consequences of an incident.
They communicate with the Fire Service team, 其他
command levels, other emergency management actors
on the scene, bystanders, and the media. Firefighters
who progress to become ICs may have several years of
experience from hundreds of incidents (full-time person-
nel in urban areas) or very limited experience from real
incidents (part-time personnel in rural areas). New ICs
lack experience; 因此, gaining some experience of acting
as the commander in a simulated emergency is crucial.
The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) 是
responsible for IC education (http://msb.se) in Swe-
这. Education is performed in two Fire Colleges oper-
ating in parallel, one located in Revinge in South Swe-
den and one in Sandö in the North. MSB provides two
versions of the IC course, one on site, where the stu-
dents stay on campus for six weeks, and one distance
course where the students study from home at half pace,
with three mandatory weeks on campus where the LS
and VS is performed. After completing the IC level 1
(IC-1) 课程, students shall be able to handle all the
phases of and terminate the response to smaller inci-
凹痕. In case of larger incidents, they shall be able to
successfully hand over the information about and re-
sponsibility for the incident to the arriving higher com-
mand levels. This duty includes actions such as: confirm
the call, prepare the team, initial orders, risk analysis, 和
window report when on site (by radio, describing what
object is affected, the nature and extent of the damage,
and the current threat). 此外, they must gather
information and identify cues (by talking to people on
site, performing reconnaissance), decide appropriate
行动方针 (tactics, risks, making optimal use of
resources at hand), clearly and competently communi-
美食 (with the team, higher command levels), 合作
with the police and paramedics, and provide situational
报告 (收音机). A situational report includes informa-
tion about the object, damage, 威胁, 目标, 行动
that have been taken, and how much time it will take to
complete the response, evaluation of the effects of ac-
tions taken, and termination of the response (见图
1). These learning objectives are assessed by instructors
in practice-based training scenarios using LS (for several
几十年), VS (自从 2017), and RVS (自从 2020).
The final examination has previously always been con-
ducted in LS, namely requiring students and instructors
to be at the same location.
2.1.2 Live Simulation. In LS, scenarios unfold at a
physical training ground using physical buildings, ve-
冰车, 人们, fire, and smoke often built and/or ar-
ranged for firefighter training; 例如, to allow
the extinguishing of fires and extrication from crashed
vehicles. The student is physically present in the same
geographical environment as the dedicated buildings,
物体, equipment, other students, instructors, 交流电-
托尔斯, and technical personnel. Interaction with others
takes place face-to-face or via radio, much like a real inci-
凹痕. Although safety is the first priority, LS poses some
risk for injuries and, when using real fire, exposure to
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 131
数字 1. The most important phases (arrows) and actions (stars) from the call to ending the activities, where the IC student should report to
higher command or make decisions (Hammar Wijkmark & Heldal, 2020).
carcinogenic particles (Wingfors, Nyholm, Magnusson,
& Wijkmark, 2018). The development of a scenario in
these settings is limited by safety and environmental
法规; 例如, fires cannot spread to other
buildings, smoke cannot represent plastics or rubber
burning, and gas bottles cannot explode. The buildings
are built to stand for several fires per year, 那是, fire-
proof buildings that do not resemble any buildings in
society or the fire behavior and cues of a real incident.
The consequences of wrong decisions cannot be simu-
lated in a way that represent the real-life situations. 这
limits the training value for the IC role due to missing
more detailed cues. These elements must often be added
to training (helping students to imagine these) 还有一些
aspects must be subtracted by verbal information given
by the instructor. The instructor/assessor can observe
IC students perform in a realistic incident context, 但它
is challenging and often impossible to provide LS train-
ing in sufficiently diverse situations to meet new and
dynamic learning needs, such as the simulation of fires
including new building materials, 化学品, or electric
vehicles. Real, physical grounds cannot be used; 对于前任-
充足, harbors cannot be closed to practice large ship
fires (Jansen, 2014). Complex incidents, large fire ex-
plosions involving many firefighters (Chittaro & Sioni,
2015) cannot be easily set up and repeated hundreds of
times to allow for the training of many in the same man-
ner (Lamb, Farrow, Olymbios, Launder, & Greatbatch,
2020). Notwithstanding these shortcomings, 预-
vailing view among instructors is that LS involving phys-
ical objects and interaction is the only adequate method
to train and assess practical competencies necessary for
ICs.
2.1.3 Virtual Simulation. 自从 2017, VS has become
more common as a supplement to LS at the MSB (看
数字 2), 尽管, in some other Fire Academies, VS has
become the primary form of practice-based training; 为了
例子, in Estonia (Polikarpus, Bøhm, & Ley, 2019)
and Portugal (雷斯 & Neves, 2019). By using VS, a stu-
dent can practice the role an IC needs to possess in a
virtual environment (projected on a large screen) 我们-
ing a gamepad. To gather information and issue orders,
the student interacts with avatars (例如, firefighters or
bystanders). The IC student’s decisions on actions to
be taken (good or bad) are conducted by the firefighter
avatars in the simulated environment. The counterplay
(when the “avatars reply”) is provided by instructors,
either face-to-face or through a speaker. In an earlier
学习, IC students were asked to relate their presence
experienced in the VS to a situation when they expe-
rienced a high presence in a previous LS training; 72%
of the participating 90 students stated that they expe-
rienced a presence similar to the recalled exercise to
either a high or very high extent and 68% noted that
they felt like they were in the same environment as the
人 (firefighters or bystanders) they met (on screen
and in person) (Hammar Wijkmark, Metallinou, Hel-
dal, & Fankvist, 2020). Observations from VS train-
ing have indicated that students often appreciated the
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132 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
2015), the need for additional competencies for instruc-
托尔斯 (Alklind Taylor, 2014), and concerns regarding stu-
dents’ learning incorrect or incomplete actions (Frank,
2014) or more accessible training situations (Backlund,
Heldal, Engstrøm, Johannesson, & Lebram, 2013).
2.1.4 Remote Virtual Simulation. RVS is not only
an option for distance training and assessment during
COVID-19-related restrictions but also of great interest
to organizations providing distance education where the
student and instructors can participate from remote geo-
graphical locations. Remote collaboration in VS requires
non-problematic, quick social interaction via technology
and an ability to perceive, 定义, and approach common
目标. Students and teachers must collaborate in an ed-
ucational context to clarify goals, methodologies, 和
角色. 然而, in remote interaction, the rich commu-
nication of social cues, such as non-verbal communica-
的, can be curtailed, thus impacting interaction since
some cues are lost. When using RVS, it must be accepted
that some social cues are filtered out by the medium
(Heldal, 2007), and that technical limitations hinder
the transmission of some interactions (Frank, 2014;
McMahan, Bowman, Zielinski, & 布雷迪, 2012). A given
member of the group does not necessarily know at the
start the goals of others or how they solve problems.
Following how the participants view the environment,
solve a problem (with instructors also playing their
角色), and perceive the technology (windows, 设备,
and what others notice in the virtual environment) 能
also be difficult (Bowman, 约翰逊, & Hodges, 2001;
Heldal et al., 2005; Hindmarsh et al., 1998). The ex-
perienced success of performing tasks depends on the
complexity of the tasks, and also on personal characteris-
tics and technical competencies.
Before the pandemic, 三月 2020, there were no
plans to use VS remotely or implement it in any MSB
final examinations. The authors of this article planned
to follow a final LS examination of one IC class and per-
form a feasibility study for a corresponding RVS class.
After ceasing all on-site training (LS and VS) and being
urged by the need to examine one class of IC students,
MSB decided to test RVS for IC final examinations.
数字 2. Virtual simulation set up used at MSB. The Incident Com-
mander student faces a large screen, where the virtual scenario is
visualized, using a gamepad to move. Interaction with virtual avatars
is combined with live play performed by instructor/assessor (Hammar
Wijkmark et al., 2021).
combination of virtual avatars and real-life roleplay,
which was considered to make the situation more believ-
有能力的. VS is also considered to enhance motivation and
provide improved insight into new situations, 使能
traceable actions and repeatable scenarios, 根据
earlier studies (Girard, Ecalle, & Magnan, 2013; Lamb
等人。, 2020).
While VS technology was purchased by MSB in 2011,
it was not used before 2017 (Heldal et al., 2018). 那里
are many possible explanations regarding this delay,
例如, lack of experience, digital incompetence,
medium-level managerial support, and the existing,
成功的, LS training. Other studies have also inves-
tigated the slow implementation processes for using VS
tools in emergency management education and iden-
tified necessary performance requirements. Examples
are the requirements for high fidelity representations
(Williams-Bell, 墨菲, Kapralos, Hogue, & Weckman,
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 133
2.2 Theoretical Concepts
Influencing Training
Before VS became a technology mature enough
to adopt, LS was the only realistic practice-based train-
ing available where the student could perform in an in-
cident context. The hesitation about adopting VS has
been focused on the training transfer to real-life settings,
although as we argued earlier, the effectiveness of LS
exercises can also be questioned. The transfer of knowl-
edge from LS/VS/RVS to real life incidents is complex
and therefore can be impossible to measure due to the
time lag between training and knowledge implementa-
的 (often several years) and the dynamic, 不可预料的
nature of real incidents.
2.2.1 Learning in Practice-Based Training. In Ex-
periential Learning Theory, learning occurs in four
脚步: experiencing, reflecting, conceptualizing, 和
acting/actively experimenting (Kolb, 1984). 从
IC students’ perspective, the experience would include
“taking on the role as the IC” in expected and unex-
pected incident scenarios. The students must convince
instructors that they perceived the situations correctly
and had the skills and competencies to handle them.
They must demonstrate realistic responses and make
sound decisions. Reflecting upon the experiences in the
scenario is often done verbally, including feedback from
the instructor. This leads to conceptualization, 哪个
triggers new or improved ways of acting. By this, 这
IC-student realizes that “knowledge is created through
the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 90).
因此, “sense-luscious” authentic experiences that
flood the senses are the best for learning, as argued by
Zull (2002), implying that not only the surroundings
but also the perception of being present in the situation
are essential for learning (Han, 2020).
2.2.2 富达, Realism, and Presence. Presence refers
to the user’s ability to focus on the virtual representa-
tions and actions, the experience of “being there” in
the simulation, rather than on the surrounding physical
环境 (Slater et al., 1994). In numerous stud-
是的, a common assumption is that experiencing a high
degree of presence in a VS can result in improved per-
formance (例如, Abich, 派克, 墨菲, & Eudy, 2021;
Monteiro, Melo, Valente, Vasconcelos-Raposo, & Bessa,
2020; Schroeder et al., 2001). Although the literature
is not conclusive on whether there is a causal relation-
ship between presence and positive training transfer (到
real-life performance), it can be posited that a sufficient
level of fidelity, namely a degree of realism, is required
for effective training (Salas, Bowers, & Rhodenizer,
1998, Stevens and Kincaid, 2015). 此外, 这是
not easy to determine what degree and aspect of real-
ism are most important in VS to achieve presence and be
able to transfer learning from training to work settings.
例如, at first glance, instructors may believe that
visual photorealism and physical human interaction are
necessary for high experiences and training transfer. 在
事实, the training transfer depends more on how the sim-
ulation is used (Heldal, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019;
Salas et al., 1998) and not necessarily only on the type of
technologies applied. How much financial investment an
organization can allocate to VS and RVS in general and
its influence costs and learning outcomes would require
further research.
It is also important to identify what aspects of the vir-
tual environment or technical interaction reduce pres-
恩斯, such as when the experienced presence is disturbed
by strange representations, clumsy devices, or unintu-
itive interactions (Slater et al., 2003). The psychological
fidelity, positive or negative stress, and arousal associated
with a real-life incident can be difficult to replicate in VS,
RVS, and LS training. Stress is part of the natural emer-
gency response context and is also present, although to
a lesser extent in LS, VS, and RVS training where the IC
students should demonstrate and apply their command
技能. The experience of stress is believed to enhance skill
retention and the transfer of training from the simulated
experience to the real world (Mayer & Volanth, 1985;
威廉姆斯, 1980).
3 方法
The present study involves a researcher actively
engaged in implementing virtual technologies and
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134 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
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数字 3. Illustration of the three cycles of action research presented in this article.
improving education at MSB, thus following an action
research approach (Baskerville, 1999). One researcher
followed the whole implementation process of VS and
RVS, while the other two researchers followed some
parts of the process.
MSB, the agency responsible for IC education, ceased
all on-site training (LS and VS) due to COVID-19 re-
strictions on gatherings of people. The need to graduate
one class of IC students enabled the rapid adaptation of
RVS. With this decision, the researchers organized the
study in the following three cycles (还, 见图 3):
– (Cycle 1) a pilot study (to test the RVS-format
and demonstrate usability to MSB management).
The pilot study included eight experienced ICs
from different fire and rescue services, testing
“RVS-examination” from the premises of the fire
station they worked at. Two experienced instruc-
tors/assessors arranged the simulation. This re-
sulted in designing/calibrating the practice-based
training settings by running five scenarios.
– (Cycle 2) implementing an RVS examination for
one class (20 IC students) with four instructors
(RVS1, 可能 2020), running five scenarios per
student.
– (Cycle 3) implementing an RVS examination for
a second class (23 IC students), with five instruc-
托尔斯 (RVS2, 十二月 2020), running three sce-
narios per student.
Based on the experiences of the first RVS examina-
的 (可能 2020), the scenarios were adjusted, 和他们的
number was reduced from five to three.
Data from the evaluation of the three abovemen-
tioned cycles aim to improve practice-based training
at MSB and provide insights into the process of imple-
menting virtual technologies in education. For each cy-
克莱, the steps of diagnosis, action planning, implementa-
的, 评估, and learning were followed.
3.1 Evaluations
In the pilot study, simulations lasted for one hour
for each participant (experienced ICs acting as students).
Performing the final examination in RVS lasted for four
hours for each IC student. The RVS1 and RVS2 eval-
uations were based on observations of students and in-
structors, questionnaires answered by students, 并在-
terviews with instructors. 此外, the assessment
of students, performed by the instructors, 假如
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 135
information regarding achieved learning goals. 首先
author observed the instructors during sessions and in-
terviewed them after the exam had finished. Each stu-
dent completed one pre-exam and one post-exam ques-
tionnaire. The instructors graded each student (1–5,
for the benefit of the research project, 在哪里 1 was “no
pass”) and provided information on the students’ perfor-
曼斯. The students received a “pass/no pass” result.
For investigating presence, we applied the presence
questionnaire (Slater, Sadagic, Usoh, & 施罗德,
2000; later modified by Schroeder et al., 2001) 和
added specific questions on the experience of the sim-
ulated environment and objects, problem-solving via
任务, and social communication and cooperation (Hel-
dal, 2007). These three aspects were also formulated by
Hontvedt and Øvergård (2020) for investigating simula-
tion fidelity focusing on observations and questions.
The students were provided with information about
the study and then decided whether or not to partic-
ipate. The term real-like, used in the questions, 曾是
explained in the introduction to the questionnaires as
relating to the resemblance of (右)VS training to experi-
ences acquired in the physical realm, through LS train-
ing or the handling of real incidents. Each participant
completed a consent form for participation, a pre-exam
background questionnaire about individual interests and
patterns for using technology, and a post-exam extended
presence questionnaire. The instructors were the same
individuals for both RVS1 and RVS2 (four instructors),
with the addition of a fifth instructor in RVS2. All in-
structors were interviewed. 此外, data were col-
lected through participatory observation. 观察结果
regarding student-participants’ and instructors’ activi-
ties or answers to questions were labeled according to
their class (RVS1 or RVS2) and identification number:
RVSn-pX/iX. 例如, 参与者 3 in the second
class was marked as RVS2-p3, and the second instructor
working with the first IC class as RVS1-i2.
3.2 Technical Setting
cific requirements of technology at the student site other
than an office computer, a keyboard, a television screen
or projector, a mobile phone, and a standard digital ra-
dio communication tool used for emergency manage-
蒙特. The instructors at MSB could see three screens
showing the student’s face, what the student was ob-
serving through his or her IC-avatar and the instructor-
avatar. They could hear everything the students said at
all times. The instructors could act as any of the per-
儿子们 (avatars) involved in the incidents; 例如,
firefighters or bystanders. The student could only see
the virtual environment through his or her own avatar’s
eyes and could hear (but not see) the instructor. 为了
schematic setup, 见图 4.
3.3 RVS Scenarios
Five scenarios (A, 乙, C, D, and E) were designed
and built in a 3D simulation tool (https://www.xvrsim
.com/en/). This tool includes several prepared virtual
环境 (例如, 农村, 城市) in which dynamic
scenarios could be built using objects (例如, vehicles,
avatars, fire, and smoke) from a library to prepare events,
triggers, or other functions. The scenarios were designed
based on the course objectives (briefly described in Fig-
乌尔 1) and had corresponding levels of difficulty as de-
fined by instructors for previous LS examinations. 他们
included authored storylines mirroring actual, real-life
incidents of similar dynamic events and involved civilians
as a typical incident may have.
The five scenarios in RVS1 were:
A. A road traffic collision. A farmer driving a pick-up
has lightly collided with a truck while avoiding
a collision with a deer. He is transporting a tank
of herbicide that cannot be found in the decision
support tool. This tank has a leakage caused by
the incident.
乙. A car fire, threatening to spread to a building
close by. The family is safe outside.
The remote setup allowed the IC students to con-
nect to the simulation hardware and software located
at MSB from their remote location. There were no spe-
C. A third-floor apartment is on fire. 最初, 这是
unknown if anyone is inside. 一段时间后, A
friend of the apartment’s owner approaches the
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136 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
数字 4. The assessor, the two instructors, and the operator responsible for the technology performed counterplay in the
scenario. They could all view three screens (左边), their own avatar or scenario, the student’s face, and the student’s avatar
看法. The students focused on one screen (正确的), seeing their own IC avatar view (also in Hammar Wijkmark et al., 2021).
IC and explains that a cat is in the apartment and
the owner is abroad.
D. A collision including three vehicles has occurred
under an overpass caused by loose timber on the
路.
乙. Some young people have broken into a ware-
house and started two fires before leaving. 那里
are caravans, vehicles, and welding gas inside the
warehouse.
见图 5 for a screenshot from scenario B and Fig-
乌尔 6 for a screenshot from scenario E, illustrating a
snapshot of the scenarios from the IC student’s per-
观望的. These five scenarios were reduced to A, 乙, 和
E in RVS2 to allow more time for each scenario, 更多的
feedback in between them, and longer breaks, 基于
experiences from RVS1.
These scenarios were used to provide relevant, realistic
incident contexts in which the students could perform,
那是, to adopt the IC role and convince instructors of
their skills and competency. The scenarios provided the
context for performing as the IC (数字 1); in other
字, the scenarios were not designed to assess specific
technical skills and tactics in a specific situation. Skills
and competencies were assessed and documented us-
ing an assessment tool formed according to the course
目标 (数字 1).
Four instructors were present during the RVS exami-
nations. They alternately assessed the students but since
they were also performing counterplay, this provided
the possibility to discuss evaluations in a way that had
not been possible in LS, where only one assessor is ap-
pointed. The instructors expressed that their ability to
perform high quality assessment was enhanced.
Results—Answering the Research
4
问题
4.1 Experiencing Presence in RVS
for Practice-Based Training (RQ1)
4.1.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Evaluation of
RVS from IC Students. Since LS is commonly seen
as providing the most believable context for IC train-
ing and all IC students participating in the study had
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 137
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数字 5. A snapshot illustrating the IC student’s avatar view in scenario B.
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数字 6. A snapshot from an IC-student’s avatar view in scenario E.
experienced LS training, they were asked to relate the
experienced presence in RVS to a previous high presence
LS experience. Students were asked, “Think of a previ-
ous LS session in which you experienced high presence.
Compared to that, to what extent did you experience
high presence in RVS?” A total of 70% of the IC stu-
dents in RVS1 and 87% in RVS2 rated the experience of
presence as either high or very high ((西德:2)4 on the Likert
规模, 1 = “very low” to 5 = “very high”). Their spatial
在场, investigated through the question: “To what
extent did you feel that you were in a virtual environ-
蒙特?” was also rated “high” or “very high” by 75% 的
138 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
数字 7. Answers from 20 students in RVS1 regarding the experienced and spatial presence and social co-presence compared with previously
experienced high presence, spatial presence, and social co-presence in LS, indicated using a Likert scale from 1–5.
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数字 8. Answers from 23 students in RVS2 regarding the experienced and spatial presence and social co-presence compared with previously
experienced high presence, spatial presence, and social co-presence in LS, indicated using a Likert scale from 1–5.
the RVS1 participants and 52% of the RVS2 participants.
Their social co-presence, investigated through the ques-
的: “To what extent did you experience that you were
in the same environment as others you met?” was also
rated as “high” or “very high” by 65% of the RVS1 par-
ticipants and 61% of the RVS2 students. These results
are presented in Figures 7 和 8.
After completing the scenarios and receiving feed-
后退, some of the students spontaneously described
their experienced presence: “This is more realistic than
other methods for exercises” (RVS1-p14); “this was
great, it works great remotely” (RVS1-p3); and “this
is beyond my expectation. Interesting scenarios, 这
environment you built, giving orders works great [这
firefighter avatars carry out the orders], and it feels like
you are at the incident scene. This is the best substi-
tute for being on site” (RVS1-p5). Many of the par-
ticipants had not had high expectations that the experi-
ences would be believable. Several ICs expressed surprise
in their comments: “Overall, a great surprise. You do
not have to pretend; all you see is what it is. Not like in
the training ground” (RVS1-p16); “I think this worked
Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 139
桌子 1. The Number of Real Incident Experiences, Experienced Presence in RVS, and Performance Were Measured Using the
Grade Given by the Instructor Assessing the IC Student
不. 的
incidents
不. 的
学生
Presence
similar to
LS
Experienced
空间的
在场
Experienced
社会的
co-presence
Perceived
easiness to
solve the task
Performance
RVS1
RVS2
100+
10–99
0–9
100+
10–99
0–9
4
12
4
4
13
6
4.00
4.22
3.25
4.00
4.00
3.80
4.00
4.11
3.00
3.50
3.56
3.20
3.71
4.11
2.25
4.00
3.56
3.60
3.86
3.67
3.00
4.00
3.78
3.60
4.43
3.78
2.00
4.00
3.67
3.70
出色地 . . . there must be more of this in the course, 埃斯佩-
cially remotely. It was gold [probably: great], as close to
real as it can get. And I did not have to drive 2000 km
to the college [for the examination]” (RVS1-p1); “这
software is great. For sure I cannot blame the software
for my mistakes” (RVS2-p7); and “this scenario could
not have been done in the training ground” (RVS2-
p5). A total of 90% of the students in RVS1 and 100%
of students in RVS2 stated that they would like to par-
ticipate in similar RVS training again. A total of 10% (2
students in RVS1) responded “neutral” and explained,
“I had a hard time interpreting a realistic picture of all
impressions” (RVS1-p4) and “I was not comfortable
in the situation. It is a good supplement, but I would
have needed more real training [in LS before]. 场景-
narios were good, and I would have liked to train more
without the pressure of examination” (RVS1-p9). 他们的
answers illustrate possible insecurity regarding being sit-
uated in the RVS and adopting the IC role (observations
from RVS1).
high presence in RVS?”; spatial presence by: “To what
extent did you feel that you were in the virtual envi-
罗门特?”; co-presence by: “To what extent did you
feel that you were in the same environment as others
you met?”; and perceived easiness to resolve the task
经过: “How easy was it to solve the task, 那是, to com-
mand the incident as you intended?” The performance
measure is the average of summative grades (one for
each performed scenario) given by the assessor (on a
scale from 1 到 5, 在哪里 1 = fail, 2 = pass lowest level,
3 = pass medium level, 4 = pass with high level, 和
5 = pass with excellence) for the benefit of the research
项目. The results are presented in Table 1. 虽然
no strong correlation is observed, there may be a lower
co-presence and performance for students with less ex-
perience of real-fire incidents as firefighters.
4.2 Remote Collaboration between
Students and Instructors: Orchestrating
Practice-Based Training (RQ2)
4.1.2 Presence, Performance, and Earlier Experi-
恩塞斯. We investigated whether experienced presence
relates to performance, and whether experience from
incident scenes as a firefighter would lead to higher pres-
ence and/or improved performance in RVS. Presence
was investigated by the question: “Think of a previous
LS session in which you experienced high presence.
Compared to that, to what extent did you experience
如图 4 说明, in the RVS setting, the IC
students focused on the screen, seeing only the avatars
of counterplayers, and hearing real human voices (这
instructors) through their headset and/or digital radio.
The students talked directly to avatars on the screen us-
ing the headset, and also communicated via radio, 作为
firefighters often do during incidents. No additional
technology was required, 那是, no buttons on the
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140 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
gamepad or screen. No other people were present in the
room with the student. According to the observations,
the IC students focused on the screen during the whole
session, with only some interruptions during the first
scenario due to students being unaccustomed to moving
their avatars in the environment using the key arrows.
In VS on-site (见图 2), (which MSB had used
自从 2017) the student focused on the screen while
moving in and observing the virtual environment; 如何-
曾经, when approaching or approached by the avatars
of firefighters or bystanders, the instructor physically
approached the student while performing counterplay.
This drew the student’s attention to the physical room
and the person in it (the instructor acting as the avatar).
Students had provided positive feedback on this aspect
of the roleplay when asked about experiencing “Com-
plementing the avatars on the screen with face-to-face
human roleplay” (Hammar Wijkmark & Heldal, 2020).
In transitioning from VS to RVS, a vital question in
MSB concerned the potential consequences of the loss
of visual, face-to-face interaction. 然而, the partic-
ipants in the present study (RVS during 2020) 没有
report a need for this interaction. The instructors ap-
preciated the ability to see the IC student’s face (正面
view of) compared with LS (when this was possible only
during face-to-face roleplay). Seeing the face in combi-
nation with a good audio connection and including the
option to follow the student’s view allowed instructors
to further understand the student’s perception (例如,
what cues s/he noticed and reacted to). The instruc-
tors orally communicated via headsets and radio. 他们
could act in their appointed avatar roles, moving their
avatar using the gamepad and speaking according to
the role of the corresponding avatar. They could select
and change which avatar they operated within the sto-
ryline and how they acted. They could also adjust their
行动, 如果需要的话, when responding to the student’s
commands. This required multitasking and collabora-
tion between instructors to achieve realistic timing and
dynamically change the pace and development of the in-
cident. According to Hindmarsh, collaboration in this
setting could encounter several fragmentation problems
(disruptions in interaction) for actors using the virtual
spaces and objects (Hindmarsh et al., 1998) and address
impediments to social interaction (Heldal et al., 2005).
There are several hypotheses regarding the negative ef-
fects of fragmentation of applied technologies were not
experienced in this study. Some instructors suggested
that the constant, high-quality audio connection and
access to the student’s view made it possible to make
predictions and be more prepared. This allowed a good
orchestration of counterplay and collaboration between
the instructors. 的确, orchestrating practice-based
training and maintaining a well-prepared storyline in
RVS are essential and undoubtedly influence the overall
经验.
As presented by Hammar Wijkmark, Metallinou et al.
(2021), all instructors conducting the RVS examination
were convinced that the students were presented with
similar challenges to those presented in LS examination
and performed as they would in LS settings. 他们还
perceived the students’ movement in the virtual envi-
ronment and their communication with the avatars to
be easy and unproblematic, which is consistent with the
students’ comments. The instructors stated that they
were able to assess the students based on the established
criteria for achieved learning objectives. One instruc-
tor explained the values of the virtual environment as
“Everything that relates to the situation awareness, 这
development of the incident, like the spread of the fire
and the extent of the damage, is possible to include in
the virtual environment, which makes it extremely effec-
tive for assessment” (RVS1-i1).
It was observed that the screen showing the stu-
dent’s face was not widely used by the instructors, 尽管
the screen showing what the student was looking at
(student’s avatar view) was in use most of the time.
Although the instructors considered both views as bene-
ficial, they could extract useful information from know-
ing what the student focused on as to whether the stu-
dent was consciously “reading” cues. Access to both
views cannot be achieved in LS where the instructor
cannot be certain about what the student is observing.
Another instructor explained: “I see and hear the stu-
dent all the time. I can more easily assess communication
and the orders given. I can see the exact picture of what
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 141
数字 9. How real-like the experience of the drive to the incident scene was, rated by RVS1 and RVS2 participants.
the student is looking at each moment. It can sometimes
be difficult to determine what the student is focusing on
in a live exercise in the field” (RVS1-i2).
The instructors played different roles through avatars.
One instructor stated: “To have the opportunity to play
the IC student’s team [firefighters] makes it possible to
ask questions if orders are unclear. 还, later during the
scenario, one can [with the firefighter avatar] walk up to
the IC and ask a related question to assess to what extent
he or she has an understanding of the situation at hand”
(RVS1-i1). The difference this makes for assessment,
compared with LS training, was highly appreciated by
the instructors. In LS, a firefighter team consists of fire-
fighter students who, having participated in previous
exercises in the same buildings, automatically perform
actions the way they have learned to do, without seeking
clarification if an order is unclear.
One instructor with extensive experience of both
LS and VS who participated in all RVS scenarios high-
lighted the importance of the introduction (the welcom-
ing of the IC student) to the RVS session. If welcomes
were not handled well, it might affect the student’s state
of mind and negatively prime the whole experience (c.f.
Heldal et al., 2005). Upon starting the session, the in-
structor video-called the student, presented the other
instructors, showed a view of the instructor “control
room,” and asked some informal questions about, 为了
例子, the fire and rescue service the student is allo-
cated to, thus reducing exam nervousness and “technical
fear” of the RVS format.
4.3 Technical Aspects Influencing
Presence (RQ3)
Training is necessary for practicing interaction in
the same way as the ICs do during real incidents. 或者-
ganizing practice-based training includes several stake-
holders involved in emergency management education,
物体, 仪器, 和技术, i.e. buildings,
firetrucks, radios, ETC. (Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, et
等人。, 2020). The following section investigates the role
of the applied graphical representations for practice-
based training regarding the context with essential ob-
jects for the incidents, the possibility of solving problems
through tasks, and interaction with participants (Heldal,
2007).
4.3.1 RVS Environment and Objects. Incident han-
dling in the real world always begins with a drive to the
incident site. In the simulated scenarios, this was repli-
cated with a 40-second driving session. The drive to
the incident scene was visualized as the interior of the
firetruck from the left-hand side seat (the IC seat) 和
the sirens on. The landscape included buildings and traf-
fic observable through the windshield. If the IC stu-
dents turned their head, they would see firefighters in
the other seats. The students were asked, “How real-
like did you experience the drive in the firetruck to the
incident scene?” (1 = very unbelievable to 5 = very
believable). The average score was 3.45 for the RVS1
group and 3.78 for the RVS2 (见图 9), 与三个
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142 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
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数字 10. The experienced fidelity of the environment, including affected buildings, surroundings, victims, bystanders, and smoke and fire in RVS1.
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students stating, “very low” (RVS1-p4, RVS2-p7, 和
RVS2-p13).
For RVS, the questionnaire included questions on
photorealism of the virtual representations, namely how
alike the RVS environments and objects were to envi-
ronments and objects experienced in real incidents. 这
environments and surroundings included affected build-
ings and their surroundings, 人类 (avatars), fire and
smoke. The students rated the representations on a Lik-
ert scale of 1–5 (very unbelievable, unbelievable, neutral,
believable, and very believable). A total of 70% 的
students responded with 3 or above (see Figures 10 和
11) for the following questions: “To what extent did
you find the environment believable?”; “To what ex-
tent did you find the affected buildings believable?”; “To
what extent did you find the surroundings believable?”;
“To what extent did you find the victims believable?”;
“To what extent did you find the bystanders believ-
有能力的?”; and “To what extent did you find the fire and
smoke believable?” Two students (RVS2-p7 and RVS2-
p13) stated that the environment was “very unbeliev-
able” (Likert 1).
Students were also asked about their experiences of
fire and smoke behavior: “To what extent did you find
the fire and smoke behavior believable?” (IE。, how it
传播, 方向, or color changes). This was rated on
average 3.30 by the RVS1 group and 3.22 by the RVS2
团体 (见图 12).
4.3.2 Problem-Solving/Tasks
The participants did not experience technical prob-
lems due to settings or devices. Being able to move in
the environment was important to perform tasks, 这样的
as assessing a situation and gathering information, ob-
serving, and approaching avatars to request information.
Regarding the question “How easy was it to move in the
环境?”, in RVS1, one student stated hard (2),
nine stated neutral (3), and ten stated easy (4) or very
easy (5). In RVS2 four students stated hard (2), 九
stated neutral (3), while ten stated easy (4) or very easy
(5), (见图 13).
The students were also asked: “How easy was it to
solve the task, 那是, to resolve the incident as you
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数字 11. The experienced fidelity of the environment, including affected buildings, surroundings, victims, bystanders, and smoke and fire in RVS2.
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数字 12. How real-like the fire and smoke behavior was experienced, rated by RVS1 and RVS2 participants.
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数字 13. The perceived easiness to move in the virtual environment, rated by participating students in RVS1 and RVS2.
144 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
数字 14. The experienced easiness to solve the task (IE。, resolve the incident), rated by participating students in RVS1 and RVS2.
intended?” The results, presented in Figure 14, 印迪-
cate average scores of 3.55 for RVS1 and 3.30 for RVS2,
where two students in RVS1 and three students in RVS2
rated this as hard (2).
Regarding the students’ performance self-assessment,
70% of participants in RVS1 and 74% in RVS2
responded “yes” to the question: “Do you think that
you managed the task as well as you would have man-
aged the corresponding real task?” Students com-
mented, “It feels like this was quite similar to reality”
(RVS1-p13), “believable incidents” (RVS2-p6), and “I
do not think that the mistakes I made would have been
less in a real setting” (RVS2-p11). The students who
believed they would have performed better in a corre-
sponding real incident explained: “In a real incident I
would have seen the details in the incident better and
easier and I would have seen where the people are and
also seen the events and damages easier” (RVS1-p17);
“Real world and this are two different things. 这是
good as complementary but does not replace reality”
(RVS2-p13); “I was extra nervous because this was an
examination” (RVS2-p3). 全面的, many IC students ap-
preciated to not need driving around 2000 km for the
examination (例如, RVS1-p1) and the possibility (例如,
RVS2-p20, RVS2-p5) to be able to use a scenario that
would be impossible on the training ground.
4.3.3 Social Interaction via Communication and
合作. The visual, realistic appearance of avatars,
namely the digital representations of humans, was rated
on average above 3.50 (RVS1: bystanders 3.55, victims
3.50, 见图 10) (RVS2: bystanders 3.39, victims
3.70, 见图 11). To investigate this further, detailed
questions related to the avatars’ functional realism were
posed to RVS2 participants; 例如, “Did it disturb
you that the avatars did not move their mouth when
talking to you?” A total of 48% (11 在......之外 23) answered
that they did not notice this, 43.5% (10) answered “no,”
和 8.7% (2) answered “yes” (RVS2-p11 and RVS2-
p13) (见图 15). Two participants explained: “我
was not sure who was talking in a group” (RVS2-p11)
and “as a simulation it is good, but not close enough
to reality” (RVS2-p13). The participants who were
not disturbed by the lack of mouth movements stated:
“The counterplay was so great I did not notice [那
the avatar’s mouth did not move]” (RVS2-p17); “you
can communicate in a natural way. It is clear that the
counterplayers have great experience and knowledge”
(RVS2-p1).
To the question: “Did it disturb you that the avatars
did not move their eyes?”; 48% (11 在......之外 23) answered
that they did not notice this, 48% (11) answered “no,”
和 4% (1) answered “yes” (RVS3-p13) (见图 15).
The participant who felt disturbed by this did not pro-
vide explanatory comments regarding the eye move-
评论. Comments by participants who were not dis-
turbed by the avatar’s lack of eye movements referred
to their comments on the previous question. 至
question “Did the voices (of the instructors) match the
avatars?”; 70% (16 在......之外 23) answered “yes” and 30%
(7) answered “I did not notice” (见图 16). 这
comments given in relation to this question were “the
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数字 15. The disturbance due to the lack of mouth and eye movements experienced by students in RVS2.
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数字 16. The experienced match of avatars voices (played by instructors) to correspond to the visual appearance of avatars in RVS2.
counterplay was so great I did not notice this” (RVS2-
p10), “If you can hear the difference between sexes, 这是
easier to understand who is talking in a crowd” (RVS2-
p11), and “it was great that there were both men and
女性 [说]” (RVS2-p14).
The students could communicate to others in the vir-
tual environment (avatars of firefighters, bystanders,
and victims) by directly talking to them “on the screen”
via a microphone in the headset. Communication to
persons not on-scene (例如, dispatch centers or higher
command) was assisted by radio, as in real incidents.
The question: “How easy was it to communicate with
其他的?” received average responses of 3.80 (RVS1) 和
4.43 (RVS2). Regarding the students’ experience of
approaching and communicating with the instructor-
controlled firefighter avatars, 60% of RVS1 participants
和 96% of RVS2 participants stated that it was easy or
very easy (4–5) (见图 17). In RVS1, 10% 指出
that it was hard (2); a participant explained, “It was hard
to get the real feeling. Felt like I was talking all the time,
and it was hard to feel the connection to the staff [fire-
fighters]” (RVS1-p4).
The IC student and all others at the scene met in
the virtual environment, which does not support hand
gestures or pointing to explain directions. Regarding
whether this was experienced as a hindrance, 40% 指出
“yes” and one student explained, “I am used to making
gestures and pointing, that was not possible” (RVS2-
p9). It was observed in RVS2 that verbal descriptions
quickly compensated this; 例如: “look at the win-
dow on the second floor,” “he is over there on the right-
hand side of the building.”
The overall student experience of the counterplay
(real voices in combination with the movements of vir-
tual avatars) was related to believable avatars, enhanc-
ing interaction related to the IC students’ experience of
performing a task. 此外, the firefighter–avatars
performed given orders and/or tasks that are expected
to be done without orders, while using daily terms from
a firefighter vocabulary. The importance of the realistic
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146 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
数字 17. The experienced ease of communication with others in RVS1 and RVS2.
数字 18. The RVS2 participants’ rating of the counterplay performed by instructors.
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数字 19. The RVS2 participants’ experience of how the counterplay voice acting affected presence.
counterplay for the experienced presence was rated 4.39
on the Likert scale. This number has been calculated as
the average for the questions “How would you grade
the counterplay?” (见图 18) and “To what extent
would you say that the voice acting by the counterplay
affected your presence?” (见图 19).
To the question: “Please describe aspects that you
found pleasant in the task,” 50% reported that they
appreciated the good counterplay; the voice act-
ing done by instructors enhanced the realism of the
情况.
4.4 Main Added Values and Limitations
Experienced through RVS (RQ4)
The most appreciated added value of RVS was that
the IC final exams could be conducted despite COVID-
19 restrictions on gatherings of people. RVS in this
study supported student performance and assessment
at the same level or higher than VS on-site and LS. 自从
distance education is a high priority for MSB, RVS will
be used to increase training volume remotely for several
learning objectives. Training regarding interpersonal
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 147
interaction within the team, namely leadership, 包括-
ing non-verbal communication, may be better when
involving real people.
RVS is conducted in a medium that does not involve
all senses. Sight and hearing are the most critical paths
to gather information. In the physical settings of LS,
additional senses would be activated, such as smell and
触碰. Although this is limited in LS, the effect of lack-
ing this in RVS should be investigated further. 阿迪-
理论上, gestures cannot be used in RVS and must be
compensated for by verbal communication.
Graduating from MSB IC courses has previously re-
quired a final examination in LS. Although this involves
three days at the training ground, one week is sched-
uled for additional lectures. This involves costs to travel
and time away from students’ ordinary jobs. 对于这些
two IC classes, a traveling distance of 37,354 km and
its corresponding CO2 impact were evaded. This cor-
responds to nearly 24 times the length of Sweden or
93% of a complete lap of Earth. The most common
method of travel is by car. A calculation using the av-
erage mileage traveled by all IC final year students (280)
估计 242,335 km of traveling, which is equal to six
laps around the globe. This traveling can be avoided by
applying RVS.
The cost of one LS scenario used for an IC course
was calculated in a previous study, accounting for all
resources and materials required. The cost of one one-
hour LS scenario is approximately 300 EUR (350 USD)
(Heldal, 2018). Each student conducts two scenarios,
with a total cost of roughly 600 EUR (700 USD), 尽管
being physically at the training ground for two days,
since the activities also include observation of other
students’ performance. The cost for the RVS final ex-
amination, including all resources and materials, 曾是
calculated at 875 EUR (998 USD) per student, 在哪里
the student participated from home for four hours. 这
cost divided by five scenarios (RVS1) gives a cost of 175
EUR (205 USD) per scenario and divided by three sce-
narios (RVS2) gives a cost of 290 EUR (340 USD) 每
scenario. The cost for two hours would be 430 EUR
(或者 505 USD, calculated in SEK and converted). 什么时候
calculating and comparing the actual cost of a two-hour
practice-based training session for one student, the RVS
节目 28% less cost than LS.
Health is also a major concern regarding LS. 在一个
之前的研究, it was shown that the levels of eight
carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
metabolites were five to eight times higher in urine sam-
ples collected from students 20 hours after a regular
smoke diving exercise compared to samples collected
before the exercise (Wingfors et al., 2018). It was sug-
gested that dermal exposure was the major route of ex-
posure for firefighters. 然而, IC students and other
individuals present at an LS training including real fire
who are not wearing respiratory protective equipment
expose themselves to a risk of inhalation exposure. 这
risk is not present in VS and RVS.
5
讨论
The action research method enabling this study
involved one researcher with experience of emergency
management training and a deep understanding of the
training objectives and preconditions of the organiza-
tion and its stakeholders, who was actively involved in
the implementation process for about 10 years and in
close collaboration with the instructors. Studying the
implementation of the technology in context required
extensive knowledge of the stakeholders and the organi-
zation’s current needs.
The methods used for studying the instructors’ ex-
periences of RVS were interviews and participant ob-
servation. The instructors highlighted in the interviews
that it was of great value for them to be able to observe
什么 (in the virtual environment) the student (通过
an avatar) was observing. The observing researcher also
confirmed that the instructors were continuously using
the screen showing the student’s view. 所以, we be-
lieve that this result is trustworthy and that this finding
could inform future examinations performed after the
pandemic. Instructors having experienced this advantage
may be motivated to perform future exams in the RVS
format to ensure their access to the information inherent
in sharing the students’ avatars view.
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148 PRESENCE: VOLUME 28
The experiences of the students were studied through
questionnaires and observations. 此外, 为了
benefit of the research project, the instructors made de-
tailed notes and performed graded evaluations to pro-
vide further information about the students’ perfor-
mances. This information, presented in Section 4.1.2,
indicates that previous experiences of incidents as a fire-
fighter may affect the level of performance and the expe-
rienced presence in RVS. The participating instructors,
who had extensive instructor experience, were convinced
that the performance was not considerably affected by
the RVS format; 换句话说, the students’ perfor-
mances corresponded to their anticipated performance
in LS.
Earlier observations made between 2017 和 2019,
indicated that students appreciated a form for “live
counterplay,” with instructors physically approaching
the student during role-play during VS on-site (看
部分 2.1.2 or Hammar Wijkmark & Heldal, 2020).
RVS, lacking this aspect, did cause some concern at
MSB before its implementation. 然而, 结果
from RVS (acquired in the present study, 2020) 印迪-
cate a higher presence in the simulated environment
compared with VS on site. It would be interesting to ex-
plore whether physical on-site counterplay reduces the
sense of presence in a virtual environment by splitting
students’ attention between the screen and the person
physically in the room.
The two reported classes participated in RVS training
at different times during the pandemic. The pandemic
began in spring 2020 when many people were less ac-
customed to digital meetings. During the months that
followed, many have had numerous digital meetings and
cooperated remotely. This may have influenced how the
groups perceived and performed in the virtual environ-
蒙特. 当然, the team of instructors, which was the
same as the previous team with the addition of one new
instructor who joined in the fall of 2020, had also gained
experience both using the technology (handling the
fragmentation of different screens and understanding
the collaborative setting) and handling the counterplay,
orchestration, and collaboration. Those improvements
may have positively affected the students’ presence and
may also explain the increased presence reported by stu-
dents in RVS2 compared with RVS1. It would be inter-
esting to explore the value of counterplay orchestration
as an extension and connection to the scenario design,
namely the importance of not only designing and build-
ing virtual scenarios but how to perform the counterplay
to enhance presence and learning.
It takes time to develop the knowledge and skills to
设计, 建造, and run RVS training and assessment at
this level. 在这种情况下, the competency was present in
the organization due to the recent experiences of imple-
menting VS (自从 2017) and motivation to implement
RVS. If organizations do not perceive the effort neces-
sary for building and retaining competence in scenario
design and play, and thus allocate insufficient resources
to instructors, the quality of simulations and scenarios
may be negatively affected. Training professional RVS
instructors is time-consuming, 然而, this is a prereq-
uisite for high-quality training experiences and accep-
tance of RVS. If RVS is viewed as “just another tool in
the toolbox,” comparable with LS and used as LS with
the same planning, 目标, design of learning activity,
and assessment method, the added values of RVS (和
VS) may be undermined.
A key question behind this study is: Is the presence
and performance experienced in RVS adequate to train
for the IC role? If the answer is yes (which the results
of this study support), aspects that improve or hin-
der presence and performance must be further inves-
tigated. According to the definition of presence we
用过的 (Slater et al., 1994) the presence in a LS, a phys-
ical place should be 100%, 但事实并非如此. As we have
显示, though LS provides 100% spatial presence, 自从
it occurs in a real place (Slater et al., 1994), the odd
appearance of the training buildings and the limited
situational cues they can support may disturb engage-
ment or limit high experiences, necessary for practicing
“the role” of IC. It is possible to define more realistic
scenarios in [右]VS, where the instructors are not lim-
ited by the available objects, thus they can populate
the scene with all important objects, avatars and situa-
tions necessary to create situations that allow the stu-
dents to reach the learning objectives. 然而, [右]VS
does not automatically provide believable and engag-
ing roleplay influencing high presence, this depends
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Hammar Wijkmark, Heldal, and Metallinou 149
on the competence of those who are constructing the
scenarios (Heldal, 2016). RVS presence also depends
on different aspects regarding technology, counter-
玩, visual and audial impressions; it is essential to de-
termine what these aspects are and how they influence
经历.
One of the main advantages of this study was that it
provided an intervention and simultaneously studied
practice-based training in context, near the practition-
ers and during a longer period, involving researchers
who could influence settings, technologies and scenarios
(Baskerville, 1999). To have domain knowledge, expe-
riences with the technologies and constructing settings
scenario is necessary for such studies. Knowledge about
the state-of-the-art in research is also essential for devel-
oping practice-based learning spaces in [右]VS.
6
结论
The overall goal of the work presented in this arti-
cle was to investigate the role of RVS for practice-based
training for IC students and instructors with previous
experience from incidents in the society, and on train-
ing grounds (LS). This study indicates that the students
experienced presence in RVS comparable with previ-
ously experienced presence in LS, and their presence was
slightly higher than in earlier used VS performed on site.
While the instructors positively experienced a new vir-
tual learning space, some were more skeptical about us-
ing RVS due to the demands of setting up such training
and their responsibility for this. 然而, all recognized
the possibilities to assess practical training remotely as
the primary value of RVS.
In RVS, face-to-face human interaction is replaced
with avatars with authentic human voices. This study
shows that progressing from VS to RVS, with no face-
to-face human interaction, does not reduce the level of
presence experienced in terms of the feeling of being in
the learning scenario. The results also indicate that stu-
dents with more firefighter experience feel a higher level
of presence in RVS compared with their colleagues with
less experience from the field. The studied RVS exami-
nation was not negatively influenced by the technology
used or by technology fragmentation aspects; the tech-
nical setup supported natural communication via talking
directly to avatars and via digital radio, as ICs commu-
nicate at incident scenes. A highly appreciated factor
enabling presence was the well-performed live counter-
play with human voices. 然而, these aspects require
further examination in new scenarios.
During assessments, the instructors continuously ob-
served the students, hearing everything they said and
observing everything they observed. This suggests the
potential for RVS to provide an enhanced assessment
tool compared to LS and VS. The positive experiences
of RVS led MSB to the strategic decision to implement
RVS in all IC courses from 2021, replacing previous VS
sessions and increasing RVS use in other courses.
One additional concrete value of this study is the
avoidance of travel, which for the same training using
LS would amount to almost one lap around Earth and
435 hours of traveling by car. If we regard travel time
as an inefficient activity, avoiding the travel will free up
54 eight-hour sessions for other more productive or
pleasant activities. Additional benefits are reduced costs,
and no carcinogenic particle exposure. More research
is needed to understand how graphical representations,
scenario design, role-playing and the relation among
these influence presence and learning.
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