Active, 当地的, Connected:
Strategic and Methodological
Insights in Three Cases
Nicola Morelli
The activity of design is rooted in the very first part of the history
of the industrial revolution. In the past century, designers invented
new products, sometimes introducing substantial social or technical
创新; in other cases, they contributed to improving the
aesthetic or technical quality of existing products or materials.
Their role has been essential in the definition of an industrial model
based on large production volumes for broad markets, 但他们
have also contributed to the maturation of such a model toward
sophisticated production platforms and product architectures, 哪个
allow industrial production to customize solutions for smaller target
团体. Design’s contribution has been to help define the social
and economic role of industrial production in modern society—to
the point that it has sometimes been seen as one of the key factors
influencing the identity of the culture and the image of a country.
When industrial production models—and the development
model they supported—have been identified as one of the most
critical nodes in the question of sustainability, designers have been
seen as part of the problem and perceived the urgence to change their
看法, 方法, and role. Because of the public perception of
design action, which associates design with material and large-scale
生产, and because of the urgency of the question of sustain-
能力, the choice for designers is either to embrace and cultivate
new perspectives for their work or to be marginalized as secondary
actors in the development of more sustainable strategies. The former
implies that designers reframe their skills and competencies in view
of a sustainable perspective. The second case, while not requiring
significant changes in the design profession, implies that designers
will not be able to seize the opportunities offered by the broad socio-
economic change suggested by the question of sustainability.
The debate over sustainability within the discipline of design
in the past decades can be framed within two general parameters.
The first addresses the question of “what to do.” This question
refers to the definition of strategies for improving the environmental
efficiency of our production and consumption system. 第二
addresses the question of “how to do it.” This question refers to the
definition of a methodological approach that supports an effective
implementation of sustainable strategies. The present historical
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© 2011 麻省理工学院
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片刻, 然而, makes these two parameters extremely fluid
and open. 一方面, strategic frameworks are continuously
reshaped by rapid demographic changes, evolution of technology,
social evolution, and economic crisis. 另一方面, 方法-
ological frameworks inherited from industrial production have also
been reviewed and adapted to new situations, thus generating open
and rapidly changing methodological perspectives.
Before turning to some design cases that illustrate the
intersection of strategic and methodological frameworks, we identify
some relevant issues concerning the two parameters.
Questions of Strategies:
Activating Local and Individual Resources
In the past few decades, the debate on sustainability has explored
many directions for improving the environmental health and
efficiency of our planet. In the past few years, 尽管, 它变成了
clear that environmental sustainability cannot be achieved without
a focus on social and economic sustainability. 最近的
economic crisis has further clarified this connection by bringing to
light how the failure of large multinational companies has influenced
the social and economic traumas. 为此原因, any social and
economic strategies for future development must be applied in the
area where social quality, environmental quality, and appropriate
and sustainable forms of economic development converge.
This area defines a complex landscape of solutions that
describes different and interwoven paths. To understand this paper,
some of these paths need to be better described:
Localization of solutions. Although globalized companies are a
reality that economic crises cannot wipe out, the most relevant factors
for competitiveness are placed in the local context (Becattini 2004).
The need to provide context-specific solutions is forcing companies
to develop their global strategies in alliance and cooperation with
those in the local contexts in which they operate. 虽然
environmental, 社会的, and economic sustainability of strategies
developed in this context should be evaluated on a case-by-case
基础, some essential characteristics of these strategies are intrin-
sically sustainable. The decentralization of production, 的确,
tends to reduce the environmental costs of transport, but in addition
(and this is probably more relevant) those strategies tend to activate
人类, 材料, and natural resources in the local context. 在
特别的, the activation of local human resources (IE。, through local
服务, 制造商, 机构, and users) makes it possible to
realize a regenerative process: together with the final outcome of the
production process, the activation of such resources also stimulates
the regeneration of values, 知识的, of the institutions, 和的
the natural environment. When related to a specific context, 例如
industrial districts, such local co-production processes have proven
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to be a source of competitive advantage, both for local contexts and
for companies participating in it (Becattini 2004).
Networking resources. In a centralized industrial culture, 大的
companies produce solutions for larger or smaller target groups.
This “top-down” structure clearly separates producers from users.
Producers are creating value, whereas users (or consumers, as defined
in this logical framework) are “destroying” such value (Normann
and Ramirez 1994; Ramirez 1999). This logical structure dominates
the paradigm of traditional industrial production and has been the
guiding star for the development of industrial economies. 根据
to this logic, the industrial system progressively relieves people from
many of the tasks and responsibilities in their daily routines, 从
washing clothes to organizing parties (Normann 2000). The hidden
risk in this idea is that, together with responsibilities and concerns,
people are also deprived of their own practical, operative, 乃至
social skills, thus generating a progressive waste of human resources
(Manzini 2005). 然而, some signals are emerging that reveal the
emergence of opposite trends, from both the production side and
the consumption side. The signals from the production side come
from companies that are revising their strategies through the direct
involvement of users in the production process. Many companies
are now considering such strategies to increase the flexibility of the
production process and to generate highly personalized solutions,
which ultimately push the boundaries of mass customization toward
individual solutions (Morelli and Nielsen 2008). The same need for
highly personalized and context-related solutions is stimulating
个人, 团体, and organizations on the demand side to
undertake individual and collective initiatives to solve very specific
problems.1 Once again, the social and environmental quality of these
initiatives should be analyzed case by case but their intrinsic charac-
teristics are consistent with the main strategies for sustainability
because they create networks among human and material resources
in local contexts, thus allowing for short production chains. These new
signals, both from the production side and from the consumption
边, suggest a progressive shift in social and economic systems, 从
value chains (IE。, top-down production systems that clearly define
and separate each value production phase) to a value constellation—
a networked production system in which the value is coproduced
by different actors, including producers, service providers, 当地的
机构, and individual users.
Distributing solution potential. The shift from centralized
models to networked ones also implies a shift from a model in
which the power to generate solutions is concentrated in few
places and social roles, to a model in which a relevant part of this
power is distributed to local communities and individuals. The new
model tends to increase the problem-solving capabilities of local
社区. Such problem solving power is not an alternative to
the traditional industrial production models, but rather is comple-
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
The EU-funded EMUDE project collected
many cases of such individual and
collective initiatives in a blog: 万维网.
sustainable-everyday.org. The initiatives
cover a wide range of local and personal
倡议, including initiatives to reduce
traffic congestion, to take care of local
green areas and cultivate local vegeta-
布莱斯, and to increase social interaction in
a local area between elderly people and
孩子们.
1
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mentary to them. Industrial production’s strategies are based on
top-down provision of clearly defined solutions (business and
governments provide products and services to citizens), 然而
the horizontal networks allow for an exchange of sticky resources—
resources such as tacit knowledge, mutual understanding, 和
团结, which cannot be codified, institutionalized, or prescribed.
The activation of such resources often discloses a landscape of new
机会.
Questions of Method: Applying Industrial Design Strategies
to New Problems
During the past century, industrial design has generated its own
operative paradigms (IE。, a toolbox of methods and tools to approach
design cases)2 to support industrial production. Both industrial
companies and designers had to take into account some general
criteria concerning the need to generate economies of scale the
codification, 沟通, and transmission of knowledge across
different phases, actors, and places in the production process and a
clearly defined subdivision of labor.
Industrial design also has contributed to the most recent
evolution from mass production to mass customization. Its contri-
bution was key in supporting more modular product structures and
product platforms, by which industrial production has achieved a
level of flexibility that comes closer to the flexibility of craftsmanship
in the pre-industrial age.
A deep or thorough revision of designers’ roles should not
ignore the heritage coming from its collaboration with industrial
生产. Several criteria that have been guiding designers in this
context still make sense in the new context:
Reproducibility. The outcome of industrial activities must
be reproducible. A century ago, Henry Ford reshaped industrial
production toward a model that would dominate for several
decades—a model based on large scales of production. 最近,
industrial developments have reduced the scale of production
to individual types of products. 在此背景下, the concept of
reproducibility has been transposed from the whole product to its
component parts or its production processes. This transformation is
producing a shift from economies of scale—focused on the supply
side and working on increasing the scale of production of a single
product for the largest possible target group—to economies of
scope—focusing on the demand side and offering different types
of products or services to smaller target groups. This shift is also
moving the idea of flexibility from material products to solutions.
Products were reproduced through the multiplication of material
生产; flexibility in production was challenged by the capability
of the production system to incorporate as much knowledge as
possible about individual needs. Co-produced solutions, 同时,
are based on individual and context-specific knowledge, 和
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2
The term operative paradigm has been
introduced by Arbnor and Bjerke. 一个
operative paradigm includes methods
and tools borrowed by different disciplin-
ary areas and appropriately adapted to
deal with a specific study area.
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challenge is to organize this knowledge to make them reproducible
on a larger scale.
Subdivision of labor. The shift from craftsmanship to
industrial production was based on a logical disassembling of
a craftsperson’s knowledge and functions into modules, 哪个
could be individually treated in different phases of the industrial
production process. This principle led to the modularization of
industrial products, and such modularization, later on, supported
mass customization. Each module could be treated by different
people and required different technical knowledge.
When modularization is applied to solutions instead of
产品, tacit knowledge and hidden capabilities might be involved,
which would generate a high degree of customization (Morelli and
Nielsen 2010). This knowledge is “sticky,” meaning that its links to
the contexts make it hard for producers and designers to acquire it
in a codified form; 因此, integrating it into the traditional production
process is impossible (von Hippel 1994). 为此原因, the inherited
practice of designers to disassemble complex functional systems into
modular architectures must be re-adapted for solution architectures;
these adaptations delegate knowledge modules and distribute
decision and action power among a heterogeneous workforce,
which might include actors (IE。, final users, users’ organizations,
and local institutions) that previously were external to the traditional
production process.
Codification of solutions. The process of disassembling
the craftsperson’s knowledge in modular production systems has
been possible through a sort of reverse engineering of material
products and the re-composition of them on the basis of clearly
codified instructions. The process of codification has been essential
for the reproducibility of some knowledge, previously embedded
in a craftsperson’s brain, so that it could be handled by new people
(technicians or low-skilled workers employed in production plants).
The shift from products to solutions and the inclusion in such
solutions of a new and often unskilled people suggest two possible
strategies for circulating knowledge:
• A new effort of codification (from technical knowledge
embedded in industrial processes to common users), 和
• An effort to support the exchange, without codification, 的
implicit and tacit knowledge among users.
The two strategies are complementary: the first supports vertical
communication from companies (and institutions) to customers (或者
公民), whereas the second creates the conditions for horizontal
networks of cooperation between people.
Focus on users and on the demand side. The previous
criteria derive from the intersection of industrial production logic
and the design profession; this one, 同时, derives from the
specificity of the design profession and can prove useful for the
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redefinition of an operative paradigm. Being often placed in the area
of interaction between industrial production and final users, designers
have developed skills and capabilities to interpret users’ cultures, 需要,
and behaviors and translate them into industrial offering (Verganti 2003).
Such capability, recently improved with the support of ethnographic
methods and sociological considerations, is crucial when focusing on
the nodal point of defining new production and consumption models,
proposing new scenarios and lifestyles, and supporting horizontal
networks of collaboration between individuals at the local level.
Activating, Localizing, and Connecting By Design: Three Cases
Many cases of sustainable social innovation are emerging that have
generated localized, individualized, and networked solutions. 这样的
cases often derive from spontaneous initiatives of citizens or groups of
个人, or from specific local conditions. This pattern raises some
questions about the possibility of generating social innovation in the
framework outlined above, as a result of design activities; 假设
such innovation is possible, what kind of operative paradigm is needed
to support design action in these cases? 在以下部分中, 三
projects are proposed that, in different ways, address these questions.
All the cases are part of the teaching and research activities undertaken
at the School of Architecture and Design (A&D) at Aalborg University
and are based on a direct involvement of some of the actors (IE。,
公司, service providers, 用户) that will be running or using the
服务. We describe each of these projects to explain the framework in
which the project has been developed, the characteristics and structure
of the service, and the methodological considerations resulting from
the project.
Local Meal Service for Elderly People
In the past few decades, the need to reduce welfare costs has inspired
policies that promote active and independent lifestyles for elderly
人们. In Denmark this principle was used also for reorganizing
policies for the senior population, based on the goal of keeping people
in their own home as long as possible (Platz 1987). This policy implies
a certain level of social and physical activity by the elderly people, WHO
are not supposed to be helped in every function of their daily routine,
but rather to be supported in their attempt to work autonomously to
the satisfaction of their own needs.
Elderly people who have the physical capacity and the
willingness to live in their own home are supported with a series of
public services, such as meal services, cleaning services, and daily visits
from healthcare personnel. They also use common infrastructures, 这样的
as activity centers or meeting spaces, to maintain an active lifestyle
within their neighborhood. The general approach of local authorities is
to be open to any opportunity to improve the level of activity of elderly
people because it increases their chances of sustaining an independent
life and reduces the costs of public intervention.
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The Delight Assist project, developed in cooperation between
the School of A&D and the central kitchen in Hjørring, is considering
this context as the starting point for the redesign of the meal service
for elderly people. An analysis of elderly people’s (daily, weekly,
monthly, and yearly) routine reveals that eating and sometimes
meal preparation are perhaps the most recurrent activities in elderly
people’s individual and social life. Eating not only is about nutrition,
but also offers a social opportunity to meet friends and family. 在
添加, meal preparation is often a sort of “social ritual,” as well
as an activity in which elderly people can exercise their residual
能力.
The existing meal service is based primarily on functional
criteria, which suggests an efficient but rigid structure for the service.
The meal elderly people receive everyday consists of a variety of
dishes, but they are ready to eat and must be consumed within a few
小时. An alternative that would also reduce isolation for elderly
people living in their own home is to have some food that can be
made ready for friends or grandchildren coming to visit them.
The analysis of elderly people’s daily routine and some
ethnographic insights revealed that many people are still fully
capable of preparing their own meals and are willing to do so.
Others have lost some of their skills, mainly related to fine motor
技能 (例如, peeling potatoes or carrots), but they have a passion for
food preparation and would be glad to use their residual skills for
那; 最后, other people are still able to cook but are not strong
enough to walk to the supermarket for shopping.
The Delight Assist project started from the assumption
that the process of meal preparation and consumption can be
disassembled into different modules, including shopping/ordering
food preparation of the ingredients, cooking, 和, 当然,
meal consumption. Elderly people may decide to retain their
independence with respect to some of those modules, 但他们
may want to outsource other functions that exceed their present
能力.
The new service can provide prepared meals (如在
existing service) or a combination of semi-finished ingredients (例如,
peeled potatoes) or just the raw ingredients. This concept is able
to use the residual capabilities of elderly people at different levels,
while passing on the other competences to other local actors (A
central kitchen or local food providers) (数字 1).
The Design Challenge
The challenge for designers in this case consisted of disassembling
the meal production and consumption process and recomposing
it in a modular structure; this challenge can be compared with a
reverse engineering project. The modular structure created with this
project also makes it possible to involve local producers (groceries)
or new actors (service units to process semi-prepared food), 因此
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数字 1
Modularization of the meal service
activating local resources. 然而, unlike the most common
reverse engineering exercises, the starting point is not a complex
technological artifact but a part of people’s life. For the service to
be effective, designers need to consider elderly people as part of
the production system, thus including their behavior, daily routine,
and capabilities as variables in the production process. 为了这
原因, the service architecture represented in Figure 1 已经
disassembled in a series of use cases, in which a detailed description
of customers’ behavior was linked with a description of the behavior
of the whole production system in the back office (数字 2).
Another problem arising from this case concerns the need
for designers to use appropriate communication and representation
techniques to include elderly people as co-producers of the system.
Unlike products, whose status is perfectly defined before they come
in contact with users, services are co-produced by the customers,
which means that an appropriate communication channel must be
used to address customers’ behavior in the co-production of the
service outcome. Several kinds of representation techniques are
being developed, including graphic representations, clipscapes, 和
video sketching (Lahlou, Jegou et al.; Morelli and Tollestrup 2007), 到
increase the level of participation of users in the design process.
A Meal Delivery Service for Workers in the City Centers3
Active labor market policies in Denmark and Scandinavia are based
on an approach aimed at enhancing unemployed people’s residual
能力 (Esping-Andersen 2002). 这种方法, often labeled
active welfare (Møller 2002; Sabel and Zeitlin 2003; Vandenbroucke
2003) or open welfare (Cottam and Leadbeater 2004), makes it possible
to decrease peoples’ level of dependence on the welfare system, 因此
encouraging their re-integration into the labor market.
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
97
3
This project was developed with
the cooperation of Prof. Wolfgang
Jonas, University of Kassel. 一个更多
detailed explanation of this project
has been provided in Morelli, N。, 瓦.
Jonas, 等人. (2008). Product Service
Systems and Non-Market Oriented
Approach—Methodological and
Ethical Considerations from a Design
Perspective. Changing the Change,
设计, Visions, Proposals, and Tools,
Torino, 意大利. and Jonas, W., 氮. Morelli,
等人. (2008). Designing a product service
system in a social framework—meth-
odological and ethical considerations.
UNDISCIPLINED! Rigour in emerging
design disciplines and professions, 这
2008 DRS Conference. Sheffield, 英国.
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数字 2
Use case: the front office is represented
as a scenario, whereas the back office
of describes the behavior of components
in the back-office for each phase of this
scenario.
Some of the initiatives of Fokus Folkeoplysning (FF) 可
framed in this context. FF is a Danish organization that provides
vocational education programs. FF´s initiative in this area consisted
of a program to employ people with different social and behavioral
problems in business activities to give them an opportunity for
learning new skills that can help them become integrated into the
labor market. 此外, FF’s goal is to aim for higher levels
of occupation and employment for unemployed people (然而
government activation schemes focus on occupations that require
very low-level skills). 在过去, the organization created a café,
which was in most aspects similar to any other café. 这里, 然而,
unemployed people have a regular working routine and a continuous
social contact with clients.
The new service proposed in collaboration with A&D and the
University of Kassel is a meal delivery system for people working
in the central areas of a city. The project has been named Frokost
kurerer (The Lunch Couriers). Businesses in these areas can rarely
afford a canteen for their employees. Their employees must buy
their own lunch and often have very limited choices, influenced
by reduced time and dietary factors. The new service is meant to
connect them with meal providers—small cafés and restaurants
offering good quality food—to satisfy their needs and optimize the
time for their lunch break. The service will serve a limited area of
the city and use bicycles as the only means of transportation. As in
the café, the service will employ people who have low employment
capabilities to serve in five main functions: logistics, 付款, 它,
delivery, marketing/PR, and bike repair (in total about 15 人们).
The cost of the service is meant to be very low (“as much as sending
a postcard”), compared to the normal cost of the lunch, decided by
the meal provider. The meal providers, 反过来, will contribute to
the service with a small fee for each meal. The local government is
paying the salary (the normal unemployment benefit, plus a small
activation contribution), plus a small amount of money per employee
to support the service.
98
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
桌子 1
Logistics
Delivery
Payment
Marketing/PR
Bike maintenance
Scenario 1
Frokost kureren
Scenario 2
Couré
Scenario 3
Bike the lunch
Scenario 4
Kolibri
The Design Process
The design process consisted of three main steps, 分析, 投影,
和合成, according to the generic model suggested by Jonas
(Jonas 2007; Jonas, Morelli et al. 2008).
In the analysis phase, sensitivity analysis (Vester 1999) 曾是
used to create a systemic model of the situation by building an effect
system out of the situation’s relevant factors. The analysis identified
积极的, reactive, 批判的, and neutral variables involved in the project,
进而, on this basis, the projection phase used some of the critical
variables to generate a map of extreme contextual states, or scenarios
(数字 3).
In the synthesis phase, four scenarios (“4 stagioni” method)
were developed (数字 4). Each scenario defines a business concept
on the basis of the most critical factors (logistics, delivery, 支付,
marketing/PR and bike maintenance) identified in the sensitivity
分析.
Each concept, identified with a name, defines a platform of
actors, 相互作用, information flows, and business flows that needs
to be defined in detail. The requirements are therefore organized on
the basis of the five activity fields described in Table 1.
Logistic aspects depend on bicycle transportation and
customers’ expectations about delivery time. Such aspects include
the identification of a served area, the number of food providers that
can be associated with each of the four concepts, and the number and
efficiency of the couriers. (The project does not assume the courier
to be in perfect physical shape every day, because the personnel
are supposed to be chosen among people with low employment
capabilities.)
Delivery aspects include ordering time, food choice (更多的
variety can affect delivering time), and the collection of food from
local shops or restaurants.
Payment-related aspects arise because delivery people
should not have the responsibility of collecting the payment. 这
division of responsibility has several implications about how the
payment system is organized.
Marketing/PR aspects require different skills than delivery
people tend to have. Marketing and PR functions tend to require
that more attention be given to strategies that address customers’
expectations and to the interaction between customers and delivery
人们.
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数字 3
Different scenarios for the service
Bike maintenance: The service has its own bike repair
workshop that should also be able to provide assistance in case of
emergency.
Concept Development Tools
A progressive definition and detailing of the service, starting from
the broader frame outlined in the four-scenarios, is organized to
address different design aspects:
The development of a modular architecture for the service;
The analysis and design of time-related aspects;
The organization of an efficient system configuration on the
basis of a high variation of individual choices; 和
The organization and design of infrastructural elements
of the system.
A modular architecture. The methodological approach used for the
organization of local activities and the exploitation of local potential
is based on a modular architecture, in which each module refers to
an autonomous actor (例如, meal providers, individual customers,
or groups of customers working in the same office). Each actor
holds the knowledge needed for providing a part of the service.
The main organizational task is to generate a solution platform that
allows for multiple solutions by specifying sequence of events,
interaction among modules, and physical and financial flows.
These solution platforms allow for a distribution of engineering power
among the modules of the platform. Each module is appropriately
designed and organized at the local level (例如, each food provider
autonomously decides its offering), while the system organizer
negotiates the connection of the modules through an appropriate
modeling activity that simulates the behavior of the system in time
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数字 4
Overview of the four concepts deriving from
这 4 stagioni method
and space. The system organizer should also coordinate the essential
support activities, such as time plans, bicycle transportation, A
website for ordering, and daily menus.
Addressing time-related instances. As with architectural
设计, the concept development process can start from a larger
规模 (platforms), 和, in a second phase, 细节 (例如, products and
互动) can be articulated. Unlike architectural design, 然而,
the details in service design cannot be based on synchronic represen-
tation because of the critical relevance of time sequences and events
in phases, such as logistics and delivery. The whole system must
be organized around a very short “time window” for delivery:
lunchtime. Many critical processes in the services are concentrated in
about one hour and must be represented in detailed time sequences.
An event-based method, such as use cases, can effectively address
time-related instances of the service (Morelli 2002). Each use
case represents a simple instance of the service and focuses on a
specific actor (例如, the courier, 顾客, the IT unit). The time
sequence specifies each phase of the service and elicits requirements
concerning the actor’s experience (front office) and the system
行为 (back office). 最后, use cases facilitate the coordination
between individual time plans.
Planning variation of individual choices. The focus on
highly individualized solutions requires that different scenarios
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
101
be defined that address individual choices. The scenarios
consider different actors’ behavior and different organiza-
tional instances and emphasize their implications on the system.
Scenarios are particularly relevant in the organization of meal
ordering. Individual preferences could be combined (thus creating
cumulative orders from people working in the same building, 或者
people with the same dietary requirements) with organizational
instances (例如, the availability of meals or food providers that
satisfy that choice). By grouping these instances, different ordering
scenarios can be adequately addressed that improve the efficiency
of the service.
Planning the infrastructure. Use cases and scenarios
bring the development process to a level of definition
that is adequate for the specification of the material tools
and the technological elements that support the service.
In this case the service is not supposed to introduce any particular
innovation at the product level: bicycles, communication tools, 和
personal equipment are off-the-shelf products; minor adaptations
are required (例如, bicycles, packaging, invoice system) to facilitate
delivery logistic and payment-related requirements.
The Challenge
The project’s approach to social innovation is based on the direct
participation of local actors in the development of innovation
流程. The project is supposed to generate a broad structure in
which FF organizes the practical and operative aspects of the service.
The assumption is that local actors (IE。, providers and customers)
have context-specific knowledge for generating local solutions. 这
kind of knowledge is often hard to transfer to system developers.
Rittel (1984) characterized this situation as a symmetry of ignorance:
knowledge is asymmetric–users are domain experts who understand
the practice (IE。, they know implicitly what the system is supposed
to do), and system developers know the technology (IE。, they know
how the system can do it).
Transferring the responsibility for developing the system
directly to users makes it possible to capture essential knowledge
that is critical for the development of highly contextualized
solutions. 然而, this approach also reduces the possibility that
these initiatives can be reproduced in different local contexts. 因此,
many of the initiatives developed this way remain isolated cases, 和
little possibility exists for their broader diffusion, notwithstanding
their high potential to offer concrete solutions to present crises of
welfare systems. 所以, an important research question arising
from this context is whether these initiatives can be totally or partly
transferable.4
The reproducibility/transferability of these initiatives might
be possible using forms of codification of the knowledge needed for
their planning and development. Codification implies the modular-
4
The debate regarding the question of
transferability in design research is just
开始. See for example Chow Chow,
右. (2006). Transferability—A Wonder
on the Ground of Design Research.
Wonderground, DRS 2006. 里斯本.
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ization of the most relevant components included in a project (有关的
to knowledge and processes) and a certain level of standardization of
such modules. 在这个意义上, codification implies a reduction of the
qualitatively complex characteristics of local solutions into a simpler
but nevertheless more reproducible solution that could generate
economies of scale or scope.
The code to develop in this case includes all the organiza-
tional knowledge related to the project components, the modules,
and the interaction among them. Its reproducibility depends on the
capability of local actors to understand and use it to generate their
own context-related solution.
Facebook Without Facebook: Redesigning the Core
of an Online Community5
Until a few decades ago (and in a few cases even now), the social
cohesion of local community was based on a thick layer of links,
based on common interest, 相信, shared stories, 团结, 和
collaboration. 历史上, this network of relationships has been
built within specific geographical contexts (例如, the neighborhood
or the small town) or on familial links. The geographically located
communities created through these links establish the identity of a
地方. 实际上, such links were not just a cultural characteristic of a
community but also a functional and economic factor that supported
economic systems. 在很多情况下, such links were strong and reliable
enough to become the ground for welfare policies, as happens
especially in southern European countries (Esping-Andersen 1996).
An economy based on such links has been defined as an informal
economy because activities in such economic systems often are based
on local and informal links between people (Normann 2000). 这样的
systems present little need for a contract, or specific performance
indications, and no economic quantification is needed for these
informal mechanisms to work efficiently.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, 然而, 这
prevalence of progressive market logic and more stringent time
arrangements in work patterns, as well as the massive influx
of women into the workforce, created a shift from informal
arrangements to formal activities, provided by new actors in the
marketplace. This shift from an informal economy to a formal
pattern of market-based relationships decreased people’s reliance
on their own social networks and, 更普遍, on the capability
of informal links to provide solutions to everyday problems. 这
cost for this shift is being paid by some parts of the population,
among which are elderly people, who used to have a central role
in traditional society but now are at risk of being marginalized as a
social problem.
The advent of the second generation of internet applications—
in particular social networking applications—is promising to recover
part of the social cohesion in the local context that was undermined
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
103
5
This project has been developed by a
group of students at A&D as a master
thesis in Industrial Design. The logical
framework for this project is the life 2.0
research project, which aims at combin-
ing new technology and social network-
ing applications to support elderly people
as they seek to live an independent
生活. The author wishes to thank Maria
Winther Kristensen and Irune Gonzales,
who have enthusiastically and efficiently
worked on this project and allowed the
author to publish the results.
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by the predominant intervention of market forces in our social
and economic systems. The new social networking applications
are indeed supporting new forms of solidarity, 相信, 和文化
cohesion, creating new links based on logical and emphatic
proximity. 此外, these applications increasingly are used in
relation to specific local contexts. Facebook and Twitter, 例如,
are two of the most typical social networking applications. 虽然
the two applications have been designed to overcome the limitations
of local contexts—in fact, they have been created to connect people
living in different parts of the world—they are often used to inform
friends about local events and to invite them to visit new places.
Other applications that are more closely related to geographical
上下文 (例如, Google maps) are often used in combination with
social networking applications.
The new social patterns are not just a slavish copy of the
traditional social patterns that dominated local contexts in past
几代人; the old mechanisms of trust and social interaction
cannot be automatically replaced by these applications. 这
irreplaceability is particularly apparent when the new IT-based
applications for social networking are to be used by people, 这样的
as the elderly, who are not familiar with the new applications and
are diffident toward technology. Although young people have been
exposed to the new applications almost since birth, elderly people
often consider computer screens and keyboards to be a barrier to
沟通. 尽管如此, the social mechanisms that have
been almost spontaneously developed using these applications
are very close to the mechanisms that supported social cohesion in
local contexts in the early days. 此外, the activation of these
mechanisms in local communities can be used to support elderly
people as they seek to maintain an independent life, giving them
more links with their neighbors, family members, and friends.
为此原因, A&D and the national association of elderly
people in Denmark, Ældresagen, have collaborated to explore the
possibility of redesigning such mechanisms. The intent is to reduce
their dependence on the technological infrastructures that allow
or require their use on the Internet. This redesign exercise again
consisted of reverse engineering, this time applied to social networking
applications.
Social networking applications can be seen as a construction
based on overlapping layers: from the physical infrastructure
(IE。, computers and every product that gives accessibility to the
互联网), to a communication infrastructure (互联网), to a social
层 (including the pattern of social connections among people
communicating on the Internet). A reverse engineering process for
this phenomenon would start from the third layer, in an attempt to
disassemble, isolate, and reproduce the social mechanisms generated
in online social networks. The reference to a specific local context
would make it easy to recognize and compare the social elements
104
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that a new social network has in common with older, local cultural
图案. This understanding of social mechanisms should allow for
a process through which further technological complexity can be
added—a process of co-design with elderly people that can make
new technologies more accessible and give elderly people a sense of
ownership of the new services.
With the expectation that this process could be fruitful, A
group of students worked together with some elderly people to
propose activities that create social aggregation. The first meetings
between the designers and seniors generated a list of activities
around which elderly people could build new forms of collaboration,
including the following:
• Giving help – a local e-bay of favors exchange
• Storytelling – cooperative writing of local histories
• Activity calendar – an open list of upcoming events
• Buddy system – expert tutoring for learning or being
introduced to new activities
• Sharing interest –exchanging information about individual
兴趣
• Good and bad – personal evaluation of events, 服务,
产品, 电影, ETC.
Only one of these activities already had a previous arrangement.
Storytelling was happening through a spontaneous initiative of a
group of people at Ældresagen, who were meeting together period-
ically to write stories about the past.
After the meeting, the designers started a first simulation
of the activities to develop a series of rapid prototypes (i.e. rough
working models) of services that could support such activities.
Although the rapid prototypes were initially very rough, 他们有
been progressively improved and adjusted. Each prototyping stage
provided support to a following stage of prototyping, testing, 和
co-production.
Local Bulletin Boards
The first stage of prototyping included some examples, 例如
the short stories of the past written by the group at Ældresagen.
To stimulate local interaction among elderly people without
forcing them to use unfamiliar technologies, the examples and brief
descriptions of the other activities mentioned were posted on a
number of bulletin boards placed in two locations: at Ældresagen
premises in Aalborg and at an activity center for elderly people in
a small town near Aalborg. The experiment aimed at simulating
the mechanisms of aggregation and cooperation of people around
common interests and collaborative activities.
Each bulletin board had a headline and an explanation of an
活动. Some examples were used to stimulate participation. A pile
of blank cards was placed close to the bulletin boards to encourage
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
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other seniors to write their own contribution and start a process of
collaboration. The participation started very slowly, with no response
to the invitation in the first two weeks. 然而, the participation
increased later, as people consistently contributed their own stories,
especially in the activity center.
Guided Use Cases
Although the bulletin board is an effective tool to raise awareness of
local initiatives, a service for elderly people should be supported by
multiple opportunities for interaction and, 最重要的, 应该
define and provide a platform for communication and collaboration.
To define the quality and the details of the interaction between
elderly people and the platform, a series of co-design sessions was
organized, in which individual senior people were asked to create
use cases describing the way they would like to access this service
and communicate with other people. The technological possibilities
for developing the systems were described on cards, giving partic-
ipants the opportunity to organize their ideal services on the basis of
different forms of interaction. Each card visualised a technological or
practical option. The choices included very low-tech communication
channels (例如, postcards, bulletin boards, leaflets), technologies that
are already familiar to elderly people (例如, phones, mobiles, sms),
and technologies that are gradually making inroads into the lifestyles
of elderly people (from email to social networking applications).
A reference to the local context was also specified using maps that
allowed people to relate their use cases to their routine and their
邻里.
Acting The Interaction
Once defined, the use cases became the basis of a more intense
prototyping activity that included the simulation of the interaction
by elderly people. This simulation made it possible to improve the
co-design process by emphasising new aspects emerging from a “real
life” case. To reduce the sense of inadequacy that elderly people can
have in front of a computer screen, researchers created a fake screen
by placing a paper screen over a real laptop. The tester interacted with
this screen using an arrow on a stick in place of the mouse pointer. 这
researchers then manually changed the screen configuration according
to the users’ choices. Although slow, this simulation gave the elderly
testers a better idea of how the service could work and a stronger
sense of ownership over the potential service.
Other simulations focused on the way elderly people contact
each other to undertake a certain activity. 这里, two people acted out
the situation (ringing to each other) and provided feedback on each
detail of the interaction that needed to be designed.
Video recording of such simulations can be used for illustrating
the prototype to potential users of the service, so that they can figure
out a use scenario and be motivated to participate.
106
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Localizing
Networking
Distributing
Delight
Assist
Reproducibility: modular system
makes it possible to identify
提供者 (groceries/ processer)
in the local context
Frokost
Kureren
Reproducibility: Modules
(restaurants/shops) 可
identified in different local
上下文.
Reproducibility: identification of
critical factors for defining design
scenarios
Subdivision of labor: 当地的
shops/restaurants organize their
menu independently
Facebook
没有
Facebook
User focus: focus on mechanism
of social cohesion at the local
等级
Codification: reverse
工程; comparing Web 2.0
social mechanisms with existing
mechanisms of social cohesion
Subdivision of labor: elderly
people are executing part of the
meal production process (和
possibly making food for each
其他)
Codification:
The meal production/
consumption process is divided
into modules
Special attention on user
instructions
Subdivision of labor: direct
orders from local shops/restaurants
allow for flexible offering and short
production chains.
User focus: users are given more
choices about their lunch.
Subdivision of labor: allowing
elderly people to be more active
reduces their level of dependence
on assistance services.
User focus: elderly people are
supported in their aim to use food
as a means of social interaction
Subdivision of labor: meal
production is distributed among
local producers
Reproducibility: once the
architecture is defined, new meal
providers can be added and the
service can be proposed in new
上下文.
Codification: creation of a
mechanism to circulate tacit/
latent knowledge, even without
codifying it
Subdivision of labor:
dependency from healthcare
system is partially replaced by
mutual help and social cohesion
桌子 2
The methodological criteria of the three
projects are compared with the strategic
目标.
The Design Challenge
Rather than codifying and formalizing implicit and latent knowledge
between elderly people, this project tried to recreate the mechanisms
that circulate such knowledge and to create a platform that
supports such horizontal networking. Researchers did so by reverse
engineering the mechanisms of social interaction happening in Web
2.0 applications. The challenges in this case were in the nature of
the process—reverse engineering applies to technologies, 然而
Web 2.0 applications consist of a mix of technological and social
mechanisms—and in the target population’s lack of familiarity with
those technologies.
The activity of rapid prototyping was considered to be the
most adequate means to address both these challenges. 就其一而言
手, it allowed for a simulation of social mechanisms and the
consequent registration of the activity as a design input; 在另一
手, it allowed for a progressive introduction of elderly people into
technological mechanisms to give them a sense of ownership of the
新技术. A plot of participative activities was organized in
设计问题: 体积 27, 数字 2 春天 2011
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which elderly people could find their own motivation to implement
a system. The different interaction channels (IE。, bulletin boards,
testing, and use cases) were running in parallel and brought about
different levels of involvement of people in the project, 不同的
reactions and response times, and different approaches to novelty.
结论
The three projects reported in this paper are heterogeneous in their
自然, in the detail of their approach, and in their aims:
• The Delight Assist project focused on the engineering aspects
of the system—those aspects that make sure that customers’
behavior is addressed and supported by an opportunely
organized back office system. The aim of the project was
to suggest new and more flexible forms of industrial
生产.
• Frokost Kureren focused on the creation of scenarios on the
basis of some critical parameters and the organization of
different systemic concepts according to those scenarios.
The aim of the project was to work on the question of
reproducibility of local systems and design scenarios.
• Facebook Without Facebook focused on social mechanisms
generated by new social networking applications. 这
aim of the project was to isolate such mechanisms in local
contexts and reproduce them beyond the barriers generated
by the lack of familiarity with technology.
同时, all these projects also have some common traits that
concern both strategic aims and methodological criteria. All of them
address some of the main strategic challenges presented by sustain-
能力: the need to generate local systems, to activate and connect
local resources, and to create solutions by distributing decision and
production power. Although all the cases have in common a direct
or indirect government support, the role of the central government is
quite marginal. The organization and management of the initiatives
is the responsibility of local actors (Hjørring Central Kitchen, Fokus
Folkeoplysning, and Ældresagen). The strategic framework for such
an organizational structure is inspired by the principle of subsid-
稀缺性, promoted by the European Union (欧洲联盟 2002), and implemented
in welfare strategies in several countries (Vandenbroucke 2003).
According to this principle, problems should be resolved by the
lowest, smallest, or least centralized competent authority.
In all three projects, a methodological approach has been
used that derives from designers’ cultural and logical links with
industrial production. 表中 2, the methodological criteria of the
three projects are compared with the strategic objectives.
The description of the projects and the summary in Table 2
emphasize the extreme complexity of a landscape in which different
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strategic aims can be combined with different methodological
criteria. These examples demonstrate how the challenge that sustain-
ability poses for designers is still in a very fluid phase—a phase
in which neither the strategic frameworks nor the way to address
problems and opportunities proposed within those frameworks
are perfectly defined. The question of sustainability is still far from
proposing consolidated patterns, behaviors, and strategies. 超过
the obvious uncertainty that this situation implies, the fluidity
emerging from these cases suggests interesting social innovation
opportunities for designers, industrial companies, and institutions.
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