Mary Walshok - IA de Investigación especializada en el MIT

Mary Walshok

A Systemic Approach to
Accelerating Entrepreneurship

Extraordinary changes have taken place in the United States since the mid-1980s,
when the passage of the Bayh/Dole Act, which allowed research institutions to
license inventions coming out of federally funded grants, and the creation of the
Small Business Innovation and Research (SBIR) program helped unleash an
unprecedented era of innovation and entrepreneurship across the country. It is
clear that the larger environment in which entrepreneurial enterprises emerge is
critically important to the incubation, growth, and sustainability of wealth- y
job-creating companies. We have a long history in this country of celebrating
heroes, pioneers, and individual entrepreneurs, based on our deep belief in the
power of the individual over his or her environment. Sin embargo, increasing evidence
suggests that environment, timing, and support can either enable or inhibit indi-
vidual achievements, including successful entrepreneurship.

The 21st-century environment for innovation and entrepreneurship has
become globally interdependent in terms of inventions, innovaciones, markets, pro-
ducción, and talent. Discretionary resources are dispersed, rather than being con-
centrated in the hands of a few individuals or companies. De este modo, many of the poli-
cies and practices vis-à-vis incentivizing and accelerating entrepreneurship in the
1980s may be insufficient for the challenges of the 21st century. It may be time to
rethink what it takes to accelerate innovation and entrepreneurship in a global
knowledge economy.

My experience working in a community that completely reinvented itself over
a 30-year period suggests that accelerating entrepreneurship is as much about
community transformation as it is about helping individual entrepreneurs.
Enhancing community capacity as it simultaneously supported entrepreneurs was
at the core of San Diego’s strategy, especially the University of California, san
Diego’s innovative CONNECT organization, which was created to be a catalyst for
technology entrepreneurship. Started in 1984, just as the larger environment that
enabled more localized innovation and entrepreneurship was unleashed by less
restrictive intellectual property and financial policies, CONNECT began with an

Mary Lindenstein Walshok is Associate Vice Chancellor for Public Programs and
Dean of Extension at the University of California, San Diego, as well as an author,
educator, and researcher.

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Mary Walshok

explicit commitment to enhance community capacity as it simultaneously provid-
ed support to individual entrepreneurs.

SAN DIEGO’S TRANSFORMATIVE JOURNEY

In a nutshell, well into the 1970s, San Diego’s economy had benefited from and
leveraged federal relationships while supporting four wars—World Wars I and II,
the Korean War, and the Vietnam War—and from the expanding military indus-
trial complex that emerged in the late 1940s and 1950s. The military’s growing
appetite for advanced technologies built on good basic science, especially in the
naval and aviation arenas, drove the growth of a major R&D sector. All of this
activity was animated by concerns about defending democracy in the world and
protecting national security on the home front. The remainder of San Diego’s
economy consisted of small businesses and booming real estate and tourism sec-
tores. The result is that San Diego’s economy throughout the 20th century and even
in today’s “new economy” has been and remains significantly dependent on mili-
tary expenditures, which were close to 50 percent of the economy during the major
wars and is approximately 25 percent today because of the installations and R&D
activities going on in the region. Sin embargo, the city’s business culture has consisted
of diverse small enterprises that collaborate and co-invest in a variety of initiatives,
among which was assuring continued federal investment in the region.

The extent to which the military, and now the federal government more gen-
erally, has been the driver of economic prosperity in the San Diego region is the
subject of a book I published with my colleague, historian Abe Shragge, Invention
and Reinvention: The Evolution of San Diego’s Innovation Economy (Walshok and
Schragge, 2013). The story line, which is extremely relevant to contemporary dis-
cussions about accelerating entrepreneurship, highlights how important collabora-
tive mechanisms, as well as an ambitious and adaptive civic culture, were to San
Diego in its journey to becoming a major innovation hub. Supporting the develop-
ment of new technology clusters and edgy, risky entrepreneurial enterprises, a lo largo de
with leveraging assets, especially land, has been a key component of the region’s
DNA for more than a century.

A distinguishing feature of San Diego’s economic character is the fact that it
has relatively few Fortune 500 companies, no significant history of multigenera-
tional family wealth and influence, and little history of dominant employers, con
the exception of the aerospace industry throughout World War II and during the
Cold War. Lacking the traditional “anchor” institutions hosted by larger, older
industrial cities, such as Pittsburgh, Detroit, St Louis, and even Seattle and Los
Angeles, San Diego has had to rely for more than 150 years on coalitions of small
negocios, collaborative initiatives between government and business boosters,
and a unique relationship with the federal government that began as early as 1907.
In the 21st century, the features of San Diego’s economy that were a liability dur-
ing America’s amazing agriculture and industrial growth—community practices
and a social infrastructure that support, celebrate, and accelerate entrepreneur-

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A Systemic Approach to Accelerating Entrepreneurship

ship—are now important assets. The San Diego story, and especially the story of
CONNECT, an organization created by a group of civic leaders in partnership with
UC San Diego, may have much to teach about which characteristics of communi-
ty encourage not only individual
entrepreneurs but also the growth of
new business clusters driven by
innovators and entrepreneurs on
multiple fronts—communications,
software, biomedical devices, phar-
maceuticals, and sporting goods.

San Diego’s transformative jour-
ney began early in the 1980s, cuando
the entire Southwest was dealing
with the implosion of the savings
and loan industry, which resulted in
bankruptcies and an overall decline
in the powerful building and real
estate financing industries, both of
which had been major drivers of
regional prosperity since the 1950s.
This crisis was paralleled by a signif-
icant decline in defense manufactur-
En g; in San Diego this included the
aerospace industry and the Atlas missile. De hecho, General Dynamics, whose work-
force in the San Diego area at one time numbered 60,000, completely closed down
over an 18-month period, leaving thousands of engineers, technicians, and other
workers without jobs by the late 1980s.

En este momento, the entire country was coming to terms with the emergence of
new global competitors, especially Germany and Japan: foreign cars, televisions,
computers, and semiconductors were entering the U.S. market and significantly
challenging U.S. industries that essentially had had a monopoly in their markets
since World War II. There were many significant initiatives in response to these
new global competitors, and to the decline of global market share, jobs, y el
wealth of U.S. companies. Bayh-Dole, SBIR, and the deregulation of the banking
industry were but a few.

Mientras tanto, a consortia of industries interested in advancing technology in
sectors where U.S. dominance was threatened came together to co-invest in major
R&D and commercial centers. The Microcomputer Consortium in Austin, Texas,
and Sematech in Northern Virginia are two examples. Smaller consortia were also
developing across the country. En 1983 at UC San Diego, Por ejemplo, 3METRO, Control
Datos, Eastman Kodak, and others joined with a local entrepreneurial company,
Spin Physics, to create an R&D consortium around information storage for the
computer industry. Their investment included hiring a full-time librarian, cuyo
primary focus was Japanese and international research publications in the area of

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Mary Walshok

information storage and magnetic recording. These developments and perceived
threats, which began to dominate conversations among industry and government
leaders about challenges to America’s competitiveness, had a profound impact on
how regions in crisis began to think about new paths to prosperity.

San Diego began to develop strategies for engaging these new realities earlier
than most cities. The city’s long history of military-related R&D led to the estab-
lishment in the 1950s of institutes valuable to the military’s technology needs. Ellos
were located on the Torrey Pines Mesa and included the new University of
California, San Diego, which opened its doors in 1964. By the mid-1980s, the city’s
decision to give valuable land to organizations such as General Atomics, the Salk
Instituto, the Scripps Research Institute, and UC San Diego resulted in an array of
basic research institutions that were attracting more than their fair share of fund-
ing from the Department of Defense, National Science Foundation (NSF),
Institutos Nacionales de Salud, and private foundations.

Although the robust basic research budgets for these institutions were clearly
focused on advancing science and not on entrepreneurs who were commercializ-
ing technology, a number of companies were founded by the talented individuals
who had been drawn to the research institutions. This suggested to civic leaders
that there might be potential to develop the region’s entrepreneurial sector. El
area already hosted entrepreneur-driven, high-growth companies that had been
incubated on the Mesa contiguous to the rapidly growing basic research institu-
ciones: iMed and IVAC were founded by engineers working on the research vessels
operated by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography; and military contracts relat-
ed to satellite and wireless communications development were spurred by compa-
nies such as Linkabit and the groundbreaking biomedical company Hybritech,
both of which were founded by UC San Diego professors. So at San Diego’s
moment of crisis, when large employers such as General Dynamics were beginning
to downsize, a national furniture manufacturer was leaving, and efforts to attract
R&D consortia had failed, regional leaders shifted their attention to growing more
local enterprises that would draw on the technology applications emerging from
the basic research being done on the Torrey Pines Mesa.

NURTURING AN ECOSYSTEM OF INNOVATION

In the summer of 1984, Dan Pegg, head of the San Diego Economic Development
Corporation, approached Richard Atkinson, chancellor of UC San Diego, who had
come to the school after six years as director of the NSF, where he had been a key
player in the creation of both Bayh-Dole and SBIR. Atkinson was responsive to the
idea of UC San Diego creating a school for entrepreneurship, with the goal of
accelerating the kinds of success achieved by companies such as IVAC, a medical
device company, Linkabit, a wireless communication company working with the
Marina de guerra, and Hybritech, one of the nation’s first biotech companies developing mono-
clonal antibodies for cancer drugs and other purposes. En ese tiempo, sin embargo, UC
San Diego was firmly committed to being a basic research institution that prima-

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A Systemic Approach to Accelerating Entrepreneurship

rily offered PhDs. It did have a medical school, but it was producing more medical
researchers than practicing doctors. Por 1984 the university had consolidated the
computer science, electrical engineering, and applied mechanics departments into
a division of engineering, but these departments also were graduating primarily
doctoral students. The school’s academic senate was adamantly against starting a
business school or any applied professional schools, so the campus was ill equipped
to create the kind of entrepreneurship education program civic leaders were advo-
cating. Sin embargo, the campus had developed a number of close ties to the technol-
ogy companies on the Mesa through its extension division, in large part to support
Atkinson’s desire to build links with local industry similar to those at Stanford
Universidad, where he was a professor for over 25 años.

In Atkinson’s first two years at the helm of UC San Diego, the university’s
extension division launched an executive program for scientists and engineers, y
a division of engineering continuing education that grew by leaps and bounds as it
served engineers working primarily in local companies. I had been appointed dean
of the extension division shortly after Atkinson’s arrival, and as a sociologist I also
had been studying the character of the local industry, its aspirations and needs.
Chancellor Atkinson asked me to do a series of interviews with key technology
leaders in the region to assess what UC San Diego might do to accelerate entrepre-
neurship and business creation, given the academic parameters within which we
had to work. What we learned from this process proved pivotal to the region’s
desarrollo, and in the fall of 1984 it became the basis for the CONNECT organ-
ización, which has been credited by numerous sources (from Michael Porter to
Time, The Economist, and the Wall Street Journal) with being the catalyst for
reshaping the economy of San Diego.

What I learned from the interviews in San Diego varied enormously, depend-
ing on which player in the larger ecosystem I talked to. Leading attorneys, bankers,
accountants, and marketing people in the region were quick to say that the only
way to accelerate entrepreneurship in San Diego was to develop programs that
taught scientists and engineers about business—how to assess the market value of
their technology; to cost out what it would take to develop the technology; y para
access customers, understand their competition and, eventually, build a winning
business plan. The business service community was focused on the lack of tradi-
tional business skills among would-be entrepreneurs in the technology sector—
skills without which the region was unlikely to start and grow more companies.
Afortunadamente, I also interviewed some of the scientists who had built successful com-
panies in the region, and their view was entirely different. They saw the absence of
a tech-savvy business services community as the biggest challenge to accelerating
entrepreneurship in San Diego. To a person they described how they had to go out-
side the city for their legal services, and how they had to recruit for marketing and
human resources professionals and general managers outside of San Diego. Su
view of how entrepreneurship was understood within the business community was
eso, if they “got” it at all, it was to build on an industrial model by creating prod-
ucts and companies for the local and regional market, and eventually to expand to

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Mary Walshok

national and international markets. This is what successful San Diego companies
such as Price Club, Jack-in-the-Box, and WD40 had done. The tech entrepreneurs
underscored how important it was to understand IP, innovative financing, y
global regulatory issues, and to tap into global sources of financing and build busi-
ness strategies that were global from day one. The scientists asserted that this kind
of competency did not exist within the regional San Diego business community.

With these inputs, a small advisory group that Atkinson and the CEO of the
Economic Development Corporation had put together agreed that what was need-
ed was some sort of organizational platform to change practice and align the two
sectors, with UC San Diego acting as an honest broker. The platform would pro-
vide education, training, and networking to create the knowledge flows between
these two communities, enhance the competencies of each vis-à-vis new models
of entrepreneurship, and in the process create a community of innovation and
entrepreneurship, rather than just a set of mechanisms that would enable individ-
ual entrepreneurs to create individual companies. The strategy and insight proved
pivotal to how CONNECT organized and launched its initiatives. It focused simul-
taneously from day one on enhancing community capacity and providing support
to individual entrepreneurs. I had gone into sociology in part because of my inter-
est in how the balance between individual problems and opportunities are shaped
by a community’s assets and gaps, and thus I was energized by the consensus that
had emerged—what C. Wright Mills described as the connection between private
problems and public issues (Mills, 1959).

The two contrasting views of what was needed to accelerate entrepreneurship
in the San Diego region in the early 1980s became two interlocking themes within
CONNECT over the next 20 años. Today most scholars and planners recognize
that innovations in science and technology are supported by an ecosystem of com-
plementary competencies and resources, but in the 1980s the CONNECT organi-
zation was distinctive in that it was set up to become the hub or connective link
within the San Diego region’s ecosystem of innovation. Its mission and goals,
which were spelled out in a simple one-page statement, reflected two primary
themes: the need to develop more sophisticated science and technology product
development knowledge within the business community, and to develop more
financial, marketing, and management intelligence within the scientific communi-
ty (Walshok 2009).

One key characteristic of CONNECT is the frequency and intensity of the
interactions it facilitates, which included more than 80 programs a year in its early
days and more than 200 programs a year today, all of which have focused on both
sides of the coin. Scientific briefings targeted to business, finance, and legal profes-
sionals such as Meet the Researcher, Frontiers of Science, and Stem Cells on the
Mesa create forums through which business professionals can learn about the lat-
est breakthroughs in science and technology and their potential applications down
the road, whereas global strategies for financing high-tech companies and market-
ing bio-companies globally are examples of topics of value to entrepreneurs and
business professionals alike. Programs such as Strategies for Financing High-Tech

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A Systemic Approach to Accelerating Entrepreneurship

Cifra 1. Summary of CONNECT impact from “2012 Innovation Report
Highlights”

Companies, Springboard, which provides peer review of early technology ideas
and business opportunities, and Meet the Entrepreneur help build the competen-
cies of would-be entrepreneurs.

CONNECT is important not simply because of its programs but because of the
extent to which all of its programs rely on the knowledge and insights of experi-
enced entrepreneurs and professionals. It relies, Por ejemplo, on panels of entrepre-
neurs in the medical device sector, who describe their experiences while a savvy
moderator sums up the lessons or principles that come out of this experience. Este
sort of education has proved extremely helpful for entrepreneurs and would-be

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Mary Walshok

empresarios, particularly in the technology arena. Another distinctive feature of
CONNECT is that it offers a number of celebratory events and social activities that
have helped to define and affirm the San Diego region’s community of innovators
and entrepreneurs. The Most Innovative Products of the Year Awards, Por ejemplo,
are like the Oscars for nerds. The Entrepreneur Hall of Fame celebrates the
achievements of entrepreneurs who have built enterprises of substantial value but
may not be known among the general public. CEO dinners and wine socials at law
firms and incubators create opportunities for local innovators to interact informal-
ly. En suma, over a 30-year period, CONNECT has been instrumental in building a
community of innovation and entrepreneurship, and in seeding a variety of com-
plementary intermediary and trade organizations relevant to the future of the
region’s entrepreneurial economy, such as BIOCOM and CommNexus.

The results of not only CONNECT’s efforts but those of the whole region to
grow the innovation economy and support entrepreneurs and startup enterprises
are demonstrated dramatically in CONNECT’s “2012 Innovation Report
Highlights” (see figure 1).

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY

If one looks at the key components of an entrepreneurship accelerator such as
CONNECT, it becomes clear that certain principles are embodied in its gover-
maricón, financiación, and activities that enable both the growth of an ecosystem of
innovation and entrepreneurship and the acceleration of individual entrepreneur-
ial activity, as measured over time by startups and successful companies. In a chap-
ter from a book on developing university/industry relations, I described the essen-
tial components of the CONNECT program as follows:

1. CONNECT enables cross-professional knowledge sharing relevant to
innovation.

CONNECT is a platform through which the business community, the research
community and the innovation community made up of entrepreneurs and
investors can regularly interact around issues of mutual concern, learning from
one another, not only principles of business and entrepreneurship but from the on-
the-ground experiences, practicas, and needs of colleagues. This in turn builds the
kind of trust that enables continuing collaboration and, most especially, willing-
ness to share risk.

2. A risk-oriented culture adept at managing uncertainty may be the sine qua
non of entrepreneurship-rich regions.

The growing understanding among the business community of the multiple fac-
tors that need to be addressed in the startup process and the varied resources that
can make or break a startup company have significantly helped local companies. En
San Diego, more than most regions I have studied, expensive attorneys, consult-
ants, marketing experts, even accounting and venture capital professionals con-

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A Systemic Approach to Accelerating Entrepreneurship

tribute a great deal of pro bono time to help the new entrepreneur with a lot of
front-end knowledge, asistencia, and advice. As a technology becomes a product
with the promise of business creation, the companies and the consultants realize
there may be a return to them in a new customer or a new service contract.

Thus the pro bono work becomes a type of longer term business development
opportunity. Nearly all of CONNECT’s activities are pretransactional, with CON-
NECT and its advisors receiving no direct monetary benefits in the early stages.
Operating costs for CONNECT ($3 millón) are covered primarily by member- buques, underwriting, and selected event fees. 3. An additional distinctive feature of CONNECT is the extent to which it provides an integrated platform through which all members of the eco-system eventually interact. Platforms such as these represent more than simply a collection of networking activities and events; they involve stakeholders in a variety of meaningful interac- tions that produce three sets of benefits that are sufficient to retain the commit- ment of hundreds of business professionals to providing services over multiple years. Successful integrative platforms do the following things, based on our expe- rience: (a) They organize activities and harvest experience and knowledge that help validate ideas or provide truly meaningful input. This is accomplished in large part because of meticulous attention to aligning the experience and knowledge of advisors with entrepreneurs; in technology assessment, business planning, and financing companies; (b) They occur in a setting that is pretransactional and completely open. Ideas and plans can be discussed, criticized, and adapted in a highly collegial manner in advance of any “official” presentations. What results is a culture in which ideas are not stolen and side deals are not made. People therefore feel confident that sharing in a collegial manner is not a threat but an opportunity; (C) People learn about one another, their chemistry, their personalities, and not just about specific technologies or a business plan. We have done research on mem- bers who contribute endless hours to various CONNECT mentoring, evalua- ción, and education programs. The comment that comes back time and time again is that the value of participating is not only providing support to an entre- preneur or a would-be entrepreneur but learning about the personalities, capa- bilities and culture of peer service providers and colleagues in the legal and business service environment. The net effect of all of this is that people can identify pretransactionally potential partners or service providers they would be most comfortable working with. innovaciones / volumen 8, number 3/4 15 Descargado de http://direct.mit.edu/itgg/article-pdf/8/3-4/7/705066/inov_a_00183.pdf by guest on 07 Septiembre 2023 Mary Walshok 4. A fourth principle that has emerged from the CONNECT experience is the importance of multiple gateways to the scientific community, as well as to the business community. The frequency and diversity of activities and the wide range of topics and talent that are brought into the CONNECT program in any given year enables a multi- plicity of issues and technologies to be addressed. Además, the San Diego expe- rience, which began in 1984 with the founding of CONNECT, over the years has witnessed the proliferation of regional intermediary institutions, each of which has a valuable role to play, none of which are directly competitive. A biotech company, Por ejemplo, could be a member of CONNECT, a member of BIOCOM an indus- try trade organization, a supporter of the Von Liebig Entrepreneurism Center activities within the School of Engineering as well as an industrial affiliate of the School of Medicine. Many communities worry that too many organizations will result in competition and redundancy, but the overlapping networks serve to rein- force the culture of innovation and entrepreneurship in the region. 5. A final principle that we have concluded is an invaluable lesson learned from the CONNECT experience is how important a culture of co-investment and reinvestment is to sustainable entrepreneurial regions. By reinvestment, we mean that the beneficiaries of programs or of company suc- cess reinvest some of the profits or benefits they have received back into the inno- vation/entrepreneurship community. This begins with sharing knowledge and relationships and through contributions of personal time, to mentoring, speaking, and evaluating technology and business plans; en otras palabras, a contribution of personal time. Sin embargo, it also includes actual financial reinvestment. In San Diego, the growth of the Tech Coast Angels is an example. It numbers more than 150 individuals using the offices of CONNECT to run programs that enable early investments in promising ideas. It also is manifest in the significant growth in phil- anthropic support for the core research enterprises in the region. The San Diego region over the last 30 years has added in excess of $2 billion in new foundations
and endowment funds. These institutions, Sucesivamente, are investing hundreds of mil-
lions of dollars in endowed chairs, fellowships, research facilities, and even schol-
arships and programs for high school students in science and technology topics. Él
is clear that the innovation and entrepreneurship community that has developed
in San Diego is one that remains here in large part because of the quality of life, pero
it is also one that reinvests here, both in terms of time and philanthropy, incluido
increasingly in the gifts to the CONNECT organization itself (Walshok 2009).

CONCLUSIÓN

I wrote this essay to help broaden thinking about future strategies for accelerating
entrepreneurship. The scholarly literature has given an enormous amount of atten-
tion to such things as university technology transfer and IP policies, business-plan-

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A Systemic Approach to Accelerating Entrepreneurship

ning competitions and entrepreneurship education for undergraduates, y el
complex financing needs of technology-based startups, especially for proof of con-
cept and clinical applications development. Less attention has been focused on the
importance of the larger ecosystem in supporting emerging entrepreneurs on their
journey to convert a promising idea or technology into a viable business that can
create jobs for the region, as well as revenue that contributes to the local tax base
y, eventually, to philanthropy. The San Diego experience and the catalytic role
played by CONNECT represent an interesting case of an organization that focused
from day one on building an ecosystem that broadly supported innovation and
entrepreneurship, and not just a narrow set of issues related to individual entrepre-
neurs. In other writings and forthcoming articles, my colleagues at UC San Diego
and I document many of these ideas through comparative regional studies, también
as quantitative analytical work on the cultural and social dynamics of innovative
regiones. At its heart, the CONNECT story is about changing the business culture
and changing the social dynamics of the San Diego region. My hope is that the out-
comes described in this essay help make the case that a systemic approach to accel-
erating entrepreneurship has great promise.

Referencias

Walshok, METRO. l., & Schragge, A. (2013). Invention and reinvention: The evolution of San Diego’s inno-

vation economy. stanford, California: Prensa de la Universidad de Stanford.

Mills, C. W.. (1959). The sociological imagination. Nueva York: prensa de la Universidad de Oxford.

Walshok, METRO. l. (2009). En R. C. Molinero & B. j. LeBoeuf (Editores.), Developing university-industry rela-

ciones: Pathways to innovation from the West Coast. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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