Lea Frentzel-Beyme*
Nicole C. Krämer
Social Psychology
Media and Communication
University of Duisburg-Essen

Back to the Past—An
Experimental Investigation
of the Effects of Immersive
Historical Environments
on Empathy and Morality

Astratto

Immersive environments are known for fostering empathy via their technological
properties that offer users the opportunity to get immersed in a virtual environment
and take other perspectives. As empathy and perspective-taking are considered to be
the basis of moral development, the present study examines the potential of histori-
cal immersive media applications for the individual’s moral development according to
Kohlberg’s stage model (1958). An integrative approach was used to examine the role
of technological immersion as well as the recipients’ immersion (presence, transporta-
zione) in eliciting empathy and promoting moral development and behavior. Therefore,
an online experiment with one factorial between-subject design was conducted in
which participants (N = 289) were exposed to historical media that differed only in
their extent of technological immersion; participants either read a text, or watched a
video, or a 360° video. In line with previous research, results showed that technologi-
cal immersion positively affects presence, while transportation was not influenced by
technological aspects. Inoltre, results revealed positive effects of transportation
and presence on empathy which, in turn, was positively related to moral orientation
and behavior. The study indicates that immersive historical environments can promote
empathy and morality due to their immersive characteristics.

1

introduzione

Increasingly, memorial places and museums make use of immersive his-
torical environments, like virtual reality (VR), to make the past more tangible
and vivid. Immersive historical environments are seen as a contemporary ap-
proach to illustrating the past, offering recipients previously impossible experi-
enze (Beale & Reilly, 2017; Campana & Folger, 1995; Schofield et al., 2018). For
instance, the memorial site Berlin Hohenschönhausen (Germany) offers visi-
tori, through its 360° experience, the possibility to get an impression of what
it was like to be a prisoner in the state security service (Stasi) prison of the Ger-
man Democratic Republic (GDR) in the 1980s. It is important to emphasize

Presence, Vol. 29, Inverno 2020, 91–111

https://doi.org/10.1162/PRES_a_00357

*Correspondence to lea.frentzel-beyme@uni-due.de.
This project is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (NO.

01JD1910C). The responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors.

© 2022 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 91

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92 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29

that these applications cannot fully reflect the past or
even create real experiences (Knoch, 2021; Nakamura,
2020). They are still a selected and effortfully produced
representation of the past.

Historical immersive environments support the
recipients’ immersion into the historical content by
creating an illusion of reality with the aid of techno-
logical characteristics (per esempio., panoramic view; Fonseca
& Kraus, 2016; Hofer, 2013; Slater & Wilbur, 1997).
The richness of input and output channels (per esempio., visual,
sound, haptic) and interaction opportunities describe
the degree of technological immersion of technologies
(Herrera, Bailenson, Weisz, Ogle, & Zaki, 2018; Slater,
2003, 2018; Slater & Willbur, 1997). In this sense, 360°
videos, which offer a panoramic view, are considered to
be immersive but differ in their richness of technologi-
cal immersion from other technologies that offer more
input and output channels or interaction opportunities
(per esempio., Head-Mounted Display, HMD).

Immersive technologies promote the recipients’ im-
mersion in the virtual environment accompanied by a
shift of attention to the mediated environment (Agrawal,
Simone, Bech, Bæntsen, & Forchhammer, 2020). Questo
phenomenon can be described by the term presence: “the
sense of being there” (Slater & Willbur, 1997, P. 604).
When dealing with narrative media a similar construct,
transportation, describes the recipients’ immersion into
narration accompanied by the attentional focus on the
narration (Verde & Brock, 2000). As historical im-
mersive environments are often characterized by their
immersive and narrative characteristics (per esempio., being a
prisoner in the GDR) the current investigation focuses
on the recipients’ immersion in terms of presence and
transportation.

Previous research indicated that immersion in im-
mersive environments (VR) offers recipients the oppor-
tunity to understand other perspectives more deeply
(De la Peña et al., 2010) and promotes empathy (Bal
& Veltkamp, 2013; Shin, 2018). Especially, immersive
environments that enable users to take another perspec-
tive are considered to help to empathize with others
(per esempio., how it feels to be homeless; Herrera et al., 2018).
Therefore, VR is discussed as the “ultimate empathy ma-
chine” (Barreda-Ángeles, Aleix-Guillaume, & Pereda-

Baños, 2020, P. 683; for a critical discussion see Naka-
mura, 2020).

Taking other perspectives is, according to Kohlberg’s

moral stage model (1958), assumed to be essential for
the individuals’ moral development. Learning from the
past and teaching individuals moral values is mentioned
as an important aim of the historical and democratic
education to ensure peaceful coexistence within the so-
ciety (Brauer & Lücke, 2013; Haidt & Joseph, 2007;
Kohlberg, 1971; Pizarro & Solovey, 2002). Therefore,
getting the opportunity of taking another perspective in
the past might be a useful way to support the individu-
als’ moral orientation, as empathizing with others as an
emotional component of perspective-taking is related
to higher stages of moral orientation (Eisenberg, Cum-
berland, Guthrie, Murphy, & Shepard, 2005; Kohlberg,
1958).

In the light of this, the present study aims to investi-
gate based on the immersive historical 360° experience
of the German Stasi prison Berlin Hohenschönhausen
whether historical immersive environments support the
moral development according to Kohlberg’s (1958)
stage model. We assume that immersive historical envi-
ronments will be more effective in fostering empathy in
recipients than traditional historical media (testo, video).
Therefore, the study will examine the role of technolog-
ical immersion in this context, as well as the role of the
recipients’ immersion (presence, transportation) in elic-
iting empathy and promoting moral development and
moral behavior.

2

Theoretical Framework

2.1 Immersive Historical Environments

In recent years, immersive environments are be-
coming more and more present, even in history edu-
catione (Zhang, 2019). History museums use immer-
sive environments to illustrate past events and offer
visitors experiences they were not able to get other-
wise (Beale & Reilly, 2017). For instance, the Anne
Frank House (Netherlands) offers a VR application in
which individuals can inspect the family’s hiding place

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Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 93

in the Second World War by using an HMD. But also,
360° videos are used to illustrate the past, more deeply
involve recipients, and make history more interest-
ing (Dondi, Lombardi, Rocca, Malagodi, & Licchelli,
2018). For instance, History 360°1 produced by German
Public Broadcasters aims to bring historical contexts,
developments, and events to life through 360° video
productions.

According to frequent definitions, any “high-end user

interface that involves real-time simulation and inter-
action through multiple sensorial channels” (Burdea
& Coiffet, 2003, P. 3) or computer-generated realistic
mondo (Pan & Hamilton, 2018; Zheng, Chan, & Gib-
figlio, 1998) is considered as a type of VR. In this sense,
historical 360° videos (per esempio., History 360°) up to HMD
applications (per esempio., Anne Frank House) are VR appli-
cations (Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Slater, 2018). VR is
known for its immersive characteristics that offer users
the opportunity to immerse in a computer-generated en-
vironment (Campana & Folger, 1995). Nevertheless, the term
immersion is frequently used in different ways through-
out literature. On the one hand, it describes a psycho-
logical state characterized by perceiving oneself to be
part of, located in, and interacting with a virtual envi-
ronment (Agrawal et al., 2020). D'altra parte, it is
seen as an objective characteristic of a technology (Slater
& Wilbur, 1997).

2.2 Immersion as Technological
Property

Whether technology can be described as immer-

sive can be assessed based on specific characteristics.
These are the extent of sensory input a device offers
(per esempio., sound or haptic), surroundingness (panoramic dis-
plays, per esempio., 360° view), the richness of image features
(vividness, per esempio., dynamic illustration of shadows), or the
matching of perceptual means with the virtual interface
(proprioceptive matching; per esempio., walking; Slater & Wilbur,
1997). Based on the surroundingness (panoramic view)
and the proprioceptive matching (naturally looking
around by moving the head or using the keyboard or

1https://history360.zdf .de/

mouse) historical 360° videos can be classified as im-
mersive. In line with this, technology is not classified
binarily into immersive or non-immersive applications
but rather described based on the extent of immersion
(Slater & Wilbur, 1997). Following this, technologies
that are characterized by a diversity of input and out-
put channels (per esempio., visual, sound, haptic) and interaction
opportunities like HMD are considered to be highly
immersive whereby 360° videos are less immersive but
more immersive than standard videos (Campana & Folger,
1995; Slater, 2003, 2018). In the following, we will
describe this type of immersion classified by objective
technological characteristics technological immersion.

2.3 Human Reactions to Immersive
Media: Presence and Transportation

When immersion refers to human reactions to me-

dia, it can be described by the term presence (Agrawal
et al., 2020; Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Slater, 2003).
Same as immersion, presence is a vague term and can,
on the one hand, refer to the subjective impression that
a mediated experience is not mediated (Lombard &
Ditton, 1997), summarized as the “sense of being there”
(Slater & Willbur, 1997, P. 604). D'altra parte, Esso
can describe technological characteristics (Steuer 1992).
In the following, we will use the term presence to explain
the subjective experience of recipients to be part of and
located in a mediated environment. It is assumed that
individuals who experience presence perceive the virtual
environment as more engaging and real than the actual
physical environment (Slater & Wilbur, 1997). Recip-
ients become fully immersed in the mediated environ-
ment, shifting their attentional focus on the virtual en-
vironment and turning out everything that is happening
around them (Agrawal et al., 2020). As consequence,
the mediated environment is perceived as a place
visited.

Previous research showed that presence depends,
among other things, on the extent of technological im-
mersion (Breves, 2020; Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Lee,
Kim, & Kim, 2017; Troeger & Tümler, 2020). For in-
stance, Troeger and Tümler (2020) showed a greater
extent of presence for VR games compared to desktop

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94 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29

games and Lee et al. (2017) demonstrated in an ex-
periment that presence increases if users can naturally
move in a virtual environment with the aid of a walk-
ing simulator (proprioceptive matching). Tuttavia,
individual characteristics also affect the experience of
presence (per esempio., interesse, motivation, personality; Hofer,
2013)

Inoltre, when dealing with immersive media,
like video games or movies, there is mostly some kind
of narration (Balakrishnan & Sundar, 2011). Some vir-
tual media products tell a story (per esempio., how trees are cut
down; Ahn, Bailenson, & Park, 2014) and put the user
into a specific role (per esempio., homeless person; Herrera et al.,
2018). This even occurs in historical immersive media
applications which often include narration (per esempio., being a
prisoner in the GDR; Bunnenberg, 2020). Therefore, Esso
is important to investigate the effects of narration when
focusing on historical immersive environments. A term
that describes to what extent a reader or viewer gets
lost in the narrative plot is called transportation (Verde
& Brock, 2000, 2002) and is partly also described as
cognitive and emotional immersion in a fictional world
(Hofer, 2013).

In summary, both presence and transportation de-
scribe a subjective experience of users of being immersed
in media. Literature highlights that presence and trans-
portation should be treated separately as presence mainly
describes location and interaction aspects of mediated
environments, whereby transportation mainly refers to
getting immersed into a story plot and depends on con-
tent factors (Verde & Brock, 2000, 2002; Hofer, 2013;
Nowak, 2001; Pressgrove & Bowman, 2021; Wissmath,
Weibel, & Groner, 2009). Therefore, we will focus on
the effects of presence and transportation, when examin-
ing the effects of immersive historical environments on
empathy and moral development.

As previous research indicated that technological im-
mersion affects the subjective experience of users to be
part of and located in the computer-mediated environ-
ment (Breves, 2020; Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Lee et al.,
2017, Troeger & Tümler, 2020), we assume that when
dealing with immersive historical media the richness
of technological immersion positively affects presence.
Although previous research indicated that technologi-

cal immersion does not have an impact on transporta-
zione (Pressgrove & Bowman, 2021), for instance, NO
differences in transportation between text and movies
were found (Verde, Kass, Carrey, Herzig, Feeney, &
Sabini, 2008), we assume that higher technological im-
mersion of historical immersive media also enhances
transportation as it offers more insights into the story
and in turn enhances the narrative engagement (per esempio.,
what is happening behind; Sukalla, Bilandzic, Bolls, &
Busselle, 2016). We expect that the slight technologi-
cal immersion aspects of the immersive historical 360°
experiences (panoramic view) involve recipients more
deeply in the narration, as they get the opportunity to
influence their direction of view in the immersive histor-
ical environment. At the same time recipients were not
overwhelmed by a high number of technological func-
tions which distract from the story itself (for instance,
when using HMD). In sum, we assume positive ef-
fects of technological immersion on presence, as well as
transportation.

H1: Technological immersion affects [UN] presence and [B] trans-
portation positively.

2.4 Immersive Media as the “Ultimate
Empathy Machine”

Research indicates that presence offers “a plat-

form for the experience of empathy” (Schutte & Stili-
novi´c, 2017, P. 709), as it leads to a deeper understand-
ing of other perspectives (De la Peña et al., 2010). For
instance, Fonseca and Kraus (2016) experimentally
showed higher levels of empathy in the VR condition
which are accompanied by a greater extent of presence
compared with the video condition. Inoltre, research
indicates that especially presence leads to the creation of
empathy (Barreda-Ángeles et al., 2020). Herrera et al.
(2018) found that individuals who were put into the
perspective of a homeless person in VR showed higher
levels of empathy regarding homeless people than be-
fore. While participants of the VR condition did not
report higher empathic feelings compared to the tradi-
tional media condition, the authors pointed out stronger
positive long-term effects on empathy in the VR

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Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 95

condition. Likewise, Barreda-Ángeles et al. (2020)
showed in an experiment that the immersive presen-
tation of journalistic stories increased empathy when
they instructed participants to view various 360° videos
dealing with different topics (per esempio., refugees, the textile
industry in Bangladesh) and measured empathy after-
ward. Also, Bal and Veltkamp (2013) report an increase
in both empathy and presence when being transported
into a fictional story and Johnson (2012) found that
being transported into a story is positively related to af-
fective empathy. These findings indicate that empathy as
“the ability to recognize what other people are thinking
and feeling, and the ability to engage with other people
in a social manner” (Stueber, 2013, P. 1) can be sup-
ported with the aid of immersive media. Therefore, VR
is frequently discussed as “the ultimate empathy ma-
chine” (Barreda-Ángeles et al., 2020, P. 683). Tuttavia,
the effects of VR on empathy were mixed and mainly
shown for affective empathy, not cognitive empathy
(Martingano, Hererra, & Konrath, 2021). Inoltre,
whether VR is an appropriate tool to educate recipients’
empathic skills is much debated (Lara & Rueda, 2021;
Nakamura, 2020; Ramirez, Elliott, & Milam, 2021).
It is criticized that such VR applications aim to create
the impression of being someone else, which will indeed
never be possible (Nakamura, 2020). For instance, be-
ing a prisoner in the GDR in VR will never show what it
was exactly like to be a prisoner in the GDR. Therefore,
it is important to emphasize that those VR applications
rather enable recipients to be in someone else’s shoes
(per esempio., prisoner) which is always affected by the recipients’
perspective, experiences, and imagination skills (Lara &
Rueda, 2021).

Nevertheless, presence and transportation are

closely connected to an individual’s empathy (Bal and
Veltkamp, 2013; Fonseca & Kraus, 2016). Therefore,
we assume that presence and transportation affect em-
pathy positively. Previous research mainly focused on
context-related empathy (per esempio., empathy toward the
homeless; Herrera et al., 2018). Based on the findings
of Mado, Herrera, Nowak, and Bailenson (2021) Quale
indicated the effects of VR experiences on non-context
specific empathy, we will investigate whether the sub-

jective experience of being in the immersive historical
environment affects the recipients’ empathy in general.

H2: [UN] Presence and [B] transportation affect empathy
positively.

2.5 Empathy and Moral Development

Kohlberg (1958) assigned an important and cen-

tral role to empathy in his theory of moral development.
Building on the assumption that humans are intrinsically
motivated to explore their environment, he assumed
that empathy and perspective-taking build the basis of
moral development (Althof, 1996; Kohlberg, 1958). Ac-
cording to Kohlberg’s theory (1958), a moral judgment
can be reached only by a process of reasoning and reflec-
zione (Kohlberg & Kramer, 1969), which includes em-
pathy as an emotional component of perspective-taking
(Althof, 1996). For instance, when a child tries to decide
whether it is right or wrong to steal a toy from another
child, it is important to empathize with the other child
and find out how he or she would feel about it and de-
rive that it is not the right thing to do. Also, Eisenberg
et al. (2005) argued that empathizing with others goes
along with higher levels of moral orientation, the “use
of a person’s moral voice, specifically, an ethic of care
or an ethic of justice, or both” (Liddell & Davis, 1996,
P. 485).

Generalmente, Kohlberg (1958) assumed that the indi-
vidual’s moral development proceeds in six successive
stages, whereby each stage describes another state of
moral orientation, and two successive stages represent
one level of moral orientation: pre-conventional, con-
ventional, and post-conventional (Guarda la figura 1). Each of
the six stages, in turn, represents the individual’s ability
to understand and integrate diverse points of the indi-
vidual’s moral orientation (Kohlberg, 1976). The pre-
conventional level (stages 1 A 2) is characterized by the
orientation toward close relatives (Kohlberg, 1976). In
stage one, individuals orientate toward punishment and
obedience: actions that are forbidden and are met with
punishment are wrong.

In stage two, individuals tend to aim for rewards and

act according to rules such as “you scratch my back,

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96 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29

Figura 1. Self-created illustration of the moral stages according to Kohlberg (1958).

I’ll scratch yours.” On the conventional level (stage 3
A 4) individuals orientate themselves toward a larger
group (per esempio., family, friends, society, state). In stage three,
everything that is considered as desirable by their en-
vironment (per esempio., family, friends) is considered as good.
Therefore, stage three is also named “good boy/girl
orientation” (Kohlberg, 1976). In stage four, indi-
viduals orient toward loyalty and order. When the
post-conventional level is reached, individuals focus
on a wider circle. The moral orientation on the post-
conventional level leads from the orientation toward jus-
tice and social contracts in stage five to the orientation
to universal ethical principles (per esempio., equality of human
beings) in stage six. Kohlberg (1958) assumed the moral
development to always proceed in a successive order fol-
lowing the six stages.

In summary, the moral orientation according to
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (1958) can
be distinguished based on these six stages of moral ori-
entation. Inoltre, it is assumed that perspective-taking
and empathy build the basis of moral development. As
immersive historical environments offer users the oppor-
tunity to get an impression of how it feels to be someone
in the past, they may expand their horizons and form
their moral orientation.

Inoltre, previous research showed that different
types of media can affect the recipients’ morality (video
games, movies, series; Eden, Tamborini, Grizzard,
Lewis, Weber, & Prabhu, 2014; Grizzard, Shaw, Dolan,
Anderson, Hahn, & Prabhu, 2017; Grohmann, Holl, &
Melzer, 2021; Hodge, Taylor, & McAlaney, 2019; Holl
& Melzer, 2021). Referring to the social-intuitionist
perspective of morality (moral foundations; Haidt &

Joseph, 2007), Tamborini (2012) describes in the Model
of Intuitive Morality and Exemplars (MIME) that me-
dia consumption can affect the salience of related moral
foundations. For instance, watching a movie that deals
with loyalty might promote the salience of the founda-
tion loyalty by recipients. Along with this, Eden et al.
(2014) showed that the consumption of a series over
eight weeks affects the salience of the recipients’ related
moral foundations.

Tuttavia, as we focus on a rationalist view of the
morality of Kohlberg (1958), we assume that the new
perspective on the past that immersive historical virtual
environments offer promotes the recipients’ moral de-
velopment. Inoltre, it is assumed that moral develop-
ment can be reached by processing stories that deal with
moral conflicts which promotes the recipients’ empathy
(Kohlberg, 1976; Upright, 2002; Wismaliya, Hakam,
& Agustin, 2018). Therefore, we assume that empathy,
triggered by immersive historical environments, pro-
motes moral development according to higher stages of
moral orientation.

H3: Empathy affects moral orientation positively.

Despite the well-known attitude-behavior gap (Fish-
bein & Ajzen, 1975; Hardy, 2006), research has demon-
strated a relationship between moral orientation and
moral behavioral intention (Althof, 1996; Lu, Zou,
Chen, & Lungo, 2020; Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier,
2018). Therefore, we assume a relationship between
moral orientation and moral behavioral intention.

H4: Moral orientation affects moral behavioral intention.

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Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 97

Figura 2. Illustration of the derived integrative model including hypotheses one to five (H1–H5).

Inoltre, when focusing on moral behavior,
moral identity, as an individual’s importance to be a
moral person (Hardy & Carlo, 2011), is considered as
a kind of moral motivator. It is assumed that someone
who shows a high extent of moral identity will more
likely act morally. It is argued that moral identity could
be the best predictor of moral actions (Damon & Hart,
1992). Therefore, we assume that moral identity influ-
ences the relation between moral orientation and moral
behavior positively.

H4a: The effect of moral orientation on moral behavioral
intention is moderated by moral identity.

2.6 Research Model

The relationships hypothesized in H1–H5 will be
integrated into a model (Guarda la figura 2) that investigates
whether immersive historical environments can pro-
mote moral development according to Kohlberg’s the-
ory (1958) by giving users the possibility to take another
perspective in an immersive historical environment. In
more detail, it will be examined whether the immersive
characteristics support the experience to be part of the
historical computer-mediated environment and narra-
zione. Inoltre, the effects on the recipients’ empathy
and moral development will be examined.

Additionally, research indicates that empathically
aroused people tend to help others in need, as em-
pathy supports altruistic motives (Stocks, Lishner, &
Decker, 2009) and prosocial behavior (Eisenberg &
Mugnaio, 1987). Even in the context of immersive media
applications, previous studies showed that immersive
environments that elicit empathy led to prosocial, COME
well as pro-environmental behavior (Ahn et al., 2014;
Breves, 2020; Buji´c, Salminen, Macey, & Hamari, 2020;
Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Herrera et al., 2018; Li &
Kyung Kim, 2021; Mamma, 2020; Pressgrove & Bowman,
2021). As relations between prosocial behavior and
moral behavior can be assumed (Ding et al., 2018), we
argue that empathy promotes moral behavioral intention
directly.

H5: Empathy affects moral behavioral intention positively.

2.6.1 Emotional Impact on Subjective Experienced
Immersion. Literature highlights that the effect of me-
dia on the recipients’ morality relies on the consumed
media content (Tamborini, 2012). As historical immer-
sive media applications often deal with atrocities of the
past, it is important to focus on the evoked (negative)
emozioni. Previous research showed that transported in-
dividuals are emotionally involved in the story plot and a
positive relation between the emotional impact and pres-
ence (Barbot & Kaufman, 2020; Gorini et al., 2011).
Also, Green and Brock (2000) argued that emotional
involvement is one part of transportation. It was shown
that a higher experienced presence leads to an increase
in viewers’ emotions, whereby becoming emotionally
involved promotes becoming present in the computer-
generated environment, anche. This highlights that

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98 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29

both presence and emotions influence each other (Riva
et al., 2007). Therefore, emotions are considered an
important factor that affects the subjective experience
of individuals to be in a computer-mediated, narrative
ambiente. Accordingly, it is important to examine
the effects of evoked emotions on the subjective experi-
ence of historical immersive media. Based on the before-
mentioned findings, we assume that individuals who
become transported or present in historical immersive
environments are getting more emotionally involved and
that being emotionally involved in historical immersive
environments enhances feeling present and becoming
transported. Così, we postulate that presence, as well as
transportation, as human reactions to immersive histor-
ical environments, are affected by the emotional impact
and vice versa.

H6: There is a positive relationship between emotional impact
E [UN] presence and [B] transportation.

3 Method

To test the derived hypotheses and research ques-

zioni, we conducted an online experiment. We used a
between-subject design with three experimental condi-
tions representing the independent variable of the in-
vestigation. Consequently, we employed three different
media types that differ only in their degree of technolog-
ical immersion: testo, video, and 360° video. The study
design was approved by the local ethics committee and
was preregistered on OSF2 in advance of data collection.

3.1 Stimulus Material

The historical content of the stimulus mate-

rial: testo, video, and 360° video (UV), was the same
throughout all conditions, to ensure that the examined
effects only depend on technological immersion aspects.
The content contained the perspective of a prisoner in
the 1980s in the state security service (Stasi) prison
Hohenschönhausen in Berlin, in the German Demo-

cratic Republic (GDR; see the footage on YouTube,
20173). The story includes seven scenes. It starts with
the welcoming by three prison guards in front of the
prison, followed by a first interrogation by two offi-
cials. After that, the prisoner gets adhesive clothing in
the third scene. Then the person is photographed by
two other officials in the fourth scene. In the fifth scene,
the prisoner is brought to a cell before the person is in-
terrogated the second time in the sixth scene. Nel
last scene, the prisoner is back in the cell and hears the
screams of other prisoners. This three-minute-long 360°
video production of the Berlin-Hohenschönhausen
memorial and IntoVR 360 GmbH served as a tem-
plate for all stimuli and the original version was used
for the 360° video condition. For the second condi-
zione, we converted the same video into a standard two-
dimensional video format. The stimulus material of both
conditions is illustrated in Figure 3. The picture top left
shows the standard video view in which recipients were
able to see only one perspective throughout the whole
video. The other three pictures show additional views of
the 360° video condition. By using the mouse or key-
board, recipients of the 360° video can reach a 360°
view and get a complete overview of the whole scenario
(for instance, what happens behind them).

For the third condition, we first put the content of the
seven scenes of the video down in writing, including the
conversations and descriptions of the protagonist’s ac-
zioni. Inoltre, we added an image to each of the
seven scenes to present the atmosphere of the scenes
(see OSF2). Consequently, all conditions showed the
same story plot. In the 360° video condition, the only
addition was the possibility to look around and have an
insight into the whole scene/environment by using the
mouse or keyboard, which did not deliver any relevant
additional information for understanding the story plot.
We decided to let the participants watch the 360° video
through a video player (instead of asking them to cre-
ate VR glasses themselves by using cardboard and their
smartphones at home) to ensure that all participants in
the 360° video condition watched the 360° under the
same conditions.

2https://osf .io/a7uhm; all mentions in this article to visit Open

Science Framework (OSF) are at this address.

3https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lXldN4obTys

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Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 99

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Figura 3. Stimulus material: Standard video view of the prison area (top left) and additional views of the 360° video (fifth scene).

Reading the story or watching the videos took about

three minutes.

3.2 Measures

3.2.1 Presence. Presence was assessed by the Spa-
tial Presence Experience Scale (SPES) of Hartmann
et al. (2015), consisting of eight items reflecting
two dimensions of spatial presence: user’s self-
location (per esempio., “I felt like I was actually in the envi-
ronment of the presentation”; α = .93; M = 2.5,
SD = 1.0) and perceived possible actions (per esempio., “I
had the impression that I could be active in the en-
vironment of the presentation”; α = .84; M = 3.0,
SD = 1.2). Answers were given on a 5-point Likert Scale
(1 = I strongly disagree to 5 = I strongly agree; M = 2.8,
SD = 1.0).

3.2.2 Transportation. Transportation was measured
by the eleven general items of the Transportation Scale
by Green and Brock (2000) and adjusted to the media

types (per esempio., “While I was watching the video [reading
the text], I could easily picture the events in it taking
place”; “I could picture myself in the scene of the events
described in the video [testo]"; M = 2.8, SD = 0.6). Par-
ticipants indicated their agreement with the statements
on a 5-point Likert Scale, ranging from 1 = not at all
A 5 = very much. We excluded one item (“While I was
reading the narrative [watching the video], activity go-
ing on in the room around me was on my mind”) A
increase internal consistency (α = .70) and ended up in
an acceptable Cronbach’s alpha of .76.

3.2.3 Empathy. Empathy was assessed by the Ques-
tionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE;
Reniers, Corcoran, Drake, Shryane, & Völlm, 2011).
The questionnaire consists of 31 items, displaying two
factors: affective and cognitive empathy. Affective empa-
thy contains the subscales: emotion contagion (4 items,
per esempio., “I am happy when I am with a cheerful group and
sad when the others are glum”; α = .75), peripheral
responsivity (4 items; per esempio., “I usually stay emotionally

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100 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29

detached when watching a film”; α = .40) and proximal
responsivity (4 items; per esempio., “I often get emotionally in-
volved with my friends’ problems”; α = .64). The factor
cognitive empathy comprises the two subscales: perspec-
tive taking (10 items; per esempio., “I can easily work out what
another person might want to talk about”; α = .90) E
online simulation (7 items; per esempio., “People I am with have
a strong influence on my mood”; α = .80). Answers
were given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = I strongly dis-
agree to 5 = I strongly agree; M = 3.4, SD = 0.5). Based
on low internal consistency (α = .40) we excluded the
subscale peripheral responsivity from our analyses.

3.2.4 Moral Orientation. We self-developed a ques-
tionnaire that measures the moral orientation according
to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (1958).
The questionnaire consists of four dilemmas dealing
with situations in which the protagonists must decide
whether they protect their family or help others oriented
toward the Moral Judgment Interview (Colby et al.,
1983) and the Defining Issue Test (Rest, 1975; per esempio.,
protect persecuted vs. protect family). The dilemmas in
full length can be found on OSF.4 After reading each
dilemma, participants indicated their agreement with
the arguments on how the protagonist should decide
on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = I strongly disagree to 6 =
I strongly agree). The arguments were developed based
on moral orientation according to Kohlberg (1958).
An explanatory factor analysis revealed three factors
represented in 70 items that display all moral stages of
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (1958). IL
first factor represents the pre-conventional and conven-
tional level (26 items; per esempio., “X should not help Y because
he would endear himself to the government”; α = .96).
The second factor is the social contract orientation of
the post-conventional level (13 items; per esempio., “X should
help Y because it always right to help your family”; α =
.93). The third factor is the orientation toward univer-
sal ethical principles of the post-conventional level (31
items; per esempio., “X should help Y because it shows solidar-
ity and tolerance”; α = .95). Inoltre, we analyzed,
as already pre-registered, relations of homophobia and

4https://osf .io/a7uhm

antipathy towards academics on the moral orientation
questionnaire, as the dilemmas deal with the persecution
of gay people and academics. All analyses can be found
on OSF.4 As moral orientation is assumed to be directive
according to Kohlberg (1958), we calculated a net score
describing the level of moral orientation to ensure that
a higher score indicates a higher level of moral orienta-
zione. Therefore, we first computed the arithmetic mean
of the post-conventional level (factors 2 E 3) and pre-
conventional and conventional level oriented toward
Lind (1978). After that, we subtracted the mean of the
pre-conventional and conventional levels from the mean
of the post-conventional level.

3.2.5 Moral Behavioral Intention. The moral be-
havioral intention was assessed based on eight vignettes
based on Sommer et al. (2010). Each vignette describes
a moral everyday life dilemma (per esempio., “At a department
store you discover your dream clothes. On the way to
the cash register, you remember a report on child labor
that you have recently seen on TV. The brand name of
the clothes you want to buy was mentioned there, pure.
What would you do?"). Participants answered their be-
havioral tendency on a 7-point Likert Scale (per esempio., 1 =
buy the clothes to 7 = do not buy the clothes; M = 4.9,
SD = 1.0). The internal consistency was low (α = .57).

3.2.6 Moral Identity. Moral Identity was measured
based on the Moral Identity Questionnaire of Aquino
and Reed (2002). In this questionnaire, a list of nine
personal characteristics was presented to the partici-
pants first (“caring, compassionate, fair, friendly, gen-
erous, helpful, hardworking, honest, and kind”). They
were instructed to imagine a person who has these char-
acteristics and how that person would feel, think, E
act. After that, they rated ten items on a 7-point Likert
scala (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree; e.g. “It
would make me feel good to be a person who has these
characteristics”; “Being someone who has these char-
acteristics is an important part of who I am”; M = 4.9,
SD = 0.8) when they had a clear image of this person
in mind. According to the internal consistency, we re-
moved one item of the subscale internalization (α = .57)
and ended up therefore with five items of the subscale

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Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 101

symbolization (α = .75) and four items of the subscale
internalization (α = .65).

3.2.7 Emotional Impact. The emotional impact was
assessed by the German version of the Positive and Neg-
ative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Breyer & Bluemke,
2016). A list of 20 feelings and perceptions, ten positive
(α = .84) and ten negative (α = .89), were presented
to the participants and they were instructed to read ev-
ery word and mark the intensity of how they currently
feel on a 5-point Likert Scale (1 = not at all to 5 = ex-
tremely; per esempio., “active,” “angry,” “nervous”; M = 50.7,
SD = 11.7).

3.2.8 Manipulation Check. To analyze the percep-
tion of the experimental manipulation (testo, video, 360°
video) and to check whether the participants watched
the video or read the text attentively, we asked the par-
ticipants to briefly summarize the video they saw or the
text they read in two to three sentences.

Inoltre, we asked the participants about their
prior knowledge of GDR (per esempio., “Have you ever visited
a museum or memorial that deals with the GDR?") E
when they watched the 360° video, if they used the 360°
function of the video and if they had already seen a 360°
video in the past.

3.3 Procedure

At the beginning of the online study, participants
answered questions regarding their sociodemographic
informazione. Afterward, a soundcheck was administered
to assure that their audio output was turned on and at an
appropriate volume. They were then asked to read a text,
watch a video, or 360° video in which they were put into
the role of a prisoner in the state security service prison
Hohenschönhausen in Berlin, Germany in the 1980s.
Participants who were assigned to the 360° video con-
dition received a brief introduction to the functionality
and usability of 360° videos before watching the video.
After watching the video or reading the text, partic-
ipants were asked to answer a questionnaire regarding
their emotions and then asked to briefly summarize the
content of the video/text. Afterward, they were asked
to answer the questionnaires regarding presence, trans-

portation, moral orientation, empathy, moral identity,
moral behavioral attention, and several (open) questions.
It took on average 45 minutes (SD = 11.7) to complete
the questionnaire.

3.4 Sample

In total, 303 participants, recruited via an online

panel (respondi.com) and different online platforms
(per esempio., surveycircle.de, facebook.de) to create a sample
that is as heterogeneous as possible, completed the on-
line study. Respondents recruited via the online panel
were paid a small number of Euros for their participation
(∼10 Euro per hour). To ensure reliable data, we first
removed participants who had particularly short pro-
cessing times from the dataset (< 30 min), which ended up in a data set containing 293 participants. Afterward, especially as the participation took a lot of time, we con- ducted a long string analysis (Landers, 2020), based on the answers given to a questionnaire (MFQ) consisting of 15 items. Those three participants who ticked the same answer option to all items were removed from the data set. Therefore, the final data set contains 289 par- ticipants (173 women) aged between 18 and 69 (M = 41.5, SD = 15.4). Most of them had a university degree (39.8%), university entrance qualification (22.8%), or secondary school certificate (21.1%). Almost all participants in the 360° video condition in- dicated that they had used the 360°-function (95.5%), and approximately half of them stated that they watched a 360° video before (56.8%). Furthermore, 40 partici- pants reported that they had lived in the German Demo- cratic Republic (GDR), and about one-third indicated that they know someone, family or friends, who had lived in the GDR. All in all, participants indicated in to- tal a moderate knowledge about the GDR (max. = 100, min. = 1, M = 51.1, SD = 26.5). 4 Results 4.1 Preliminary Analysis Firstly, a MANCOVA (using SPSS 27) was cal- culated to check whether presence and transportation l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . / e d u p v a r / a r t i c e - p d l f / d o i / / / . 1 0 1 1 6 2 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 3 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 p d / . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 7 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 102 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29 Table 1. Results of the MANCOVA Examining the Differences in Transportation and Presence Between the Experimental Groups text (n = 102) video (n = 99) 360° video (n = 88) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) F(2, 283) p Presence (PA) Presence (SL) Transportation 9.2 (3.7) 11.6 (4.6) 31.3 (6.1) 9.2 (4.1) 11.7 (4.6) 30.6 (6.4) 12.1 (3.8) 13.0 (4.14) 31.2 (6.4) 25.4 7.87 1.19 <.001 <.001 .307 η2 .152 .053 .008 Table 2. Results of the Pairwise Bonferroni Correction Examining Differences in Presence Between the Experimental Groups AV Presence SL Presence PA Text Text Video Text Text Video Video 360° Video 360° Video Video 360° Video 360° Video p .512 <.001 .027 .743 <.001 <.001 differ depending on technological immersion. We added emotional impact, gender, and age as covariates in the calculation as effects of both on immersion can be as- sumed (see OSF5). As shown in Table 1, the subscales presence self-location (SL), F(2,283) = 7.87, p < .001, and presence possible action (PA), F(2,283) = 25.4, p < .001, were significantly different between the exper- imental conditions, while there were no differences in transportation, F(2,283) = 1.19, p = .307. Furthermore, the analysis revealed mixed effects of the covariates on the relation between technological immersion and presence and technological immersion and transportation (for detailed results see OSF5). Additionally, pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction were employed to examine differences in de- tail (see Table 2). The analysis showed differences in presence self-location and presence possible action be- tween the text and 360° video condition (p < .001) and the video and 360° video condition (SL), p = .027; PA: 5https://osf .io/a7uhm p < .001, showing higher values of both in the 360° video condition. However, there were no differences in presence between text and video (Table 2). 4.2 Main Analyses The integrative model including hypotheses one to five (H1–5) was tested using structural equation model- ing with observed variables using maximum likelihood estimation (using R version 4.0.3). We added the ex- perimental groups as an ordinally scaled variable to the model representing the construct technological immer- sion (1 = text, 2 = video, and 3 = 360° video). The original derived integrative model showed a strong cor- relation between the two constructs transportation and presence, r = .66, p < .001, that suggests closeness to multicollinearity (r > .80; Shrestha, 2020). Though the
verification of well-known statistical multicollinearity
indices did not show any conspicuous values (Daoud,
2017; Mansfield & Helms, 1982; Shrestha, 2020), IL
relation between technological immersion and trans-
portation in the model was suspicious. Contrary to
the results of the preliminary analysis, which showed
no differences in transportation between the experi-
mental groups (technological immersion), the original
pre-registered path model revealed a negative signif-
icant relationship between technological immersion
and transportation, β = −.15, P < .001. As also litera- ture highlights a relation between the two constructs, transportation and presence (Nowak, 2001), it was de- cided to calculate two separated models, each contain- ing either transportation or presence, to prevent high error rates (Grewal et al., 2004). Furthermore, one adaption was made according to modification indices: l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . / e d u p v a r / a r t i c e - p d l f / d o i / / / . 1 0 1 1 6 2 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 3 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 p d / . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 7 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 103 Figure 4. Illustration of the paths of the two calculated models in summary. Note: Grey lines represent the additional paths of the model, including presence instead of transportation. The dashed line displays the additionally added path based on the model indices. a path from empathy to moral identity was included (see Figure 4). The model containing transportation, provided a good fit according to frequently used fit indices: χ 2 (14) = 8.02, p = .843, χ 2/df = 1.3, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.01, RMSEA = .00 (90% CI from .00 to .03), SRMR = .036 (Hu & Bentler, 2010). Also, the model including presence provided a good model fit: χ 2 (14) = 16.91, p = .204, χ 2/df = 1.4, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = .03 (90% CI from .00 to .06), SRMR = .038 (Hu & Bentler, 2010). Both models are illustrated in Figure 4, as only the first two paths from technolog- ical immersion to presence/transportation and from presence/transportation to empathy differ between the models. Concerning hypotheses one, which assumed a positive effect of technological immersion on presence (H1a) and transportation (H1b), the models revealed that tech- nological immersion positively affects presence, β = .21, p < .001, and does not significantly affect transporta- tion, β = −.01, p = .898. Thus, H1a was accepted, while H1b had to be rejected. Regarding hypotheses two, results showed that presence (H2a), β = .25, p < .001, as well as transportation (H2b), β = .45, p < .001, positively affect empathy. Consequently, the data supported hypothesis two, which assumed a positive effect of presence (H2a) and transportation (H2b) on empathy. Moreover, hypothesis three (H3) is supported by the empirical model as there is a significant relationship between empathy and moral orientation, β = .31, p < .001. Focusing on hypothesis four (H4), the analysis re- vealed no significant associations between moral orien- tation and moral behavioral intention, β = −.06, p = .207, and consequently no moderation of moral identity on this (H4a), β = .03, p = .629, as the interaction term did not show a significant effect. Thus, H4 and H4a are not supported by the data. Though, the model’s posi- tive connection between empathy and moral behavioral intention, β = .21, p = .005, supports hypothesis five (H5). Additionally, the added paths that were not part of the hypotheses revealed a positive association between empathy and moral identity, β = .46, p < .001. The explained variance of each construct can be found in Figure 4. Furthermore, hypothesis (H6) that assumed that emotional involvement and presence (H6a) and trans- portation (H6b) depend on each other was tested. To analyze the relationship of the constructs, we conducted a separate correlation analysis. The analyses showed a significant moderate correlation between emotional in- volvement and presence, r = .45, p < .001, and a strong correlation between emotional involvement and trans- portation, r = .55, p < .001. Therefore, data support hypotheses H6a and H6b. l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . / e d u p v a r / a r t i c e - p d l f / d o i / . / / 1 0 1 1 6 2 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 3 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 p d . / f b y g u e s t t o n 0 7 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 104 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29 5 Discussion The current study investigated whether immer- sive historical environments support the recipients’ em- pathy and morality, in terms of moral orientation and moral behavioral intention. Moreover, it was examined whether the recipients’ immersion in an immersive his- torical environment has a positive impact on an individ- ual’s empathy and morality compared to conventional historical representations (texts, videos). Consequently, we assumed that feeling present and becoming trans- ported in an immersive historical computer-mediated environment enhances empathy and therefore supports moral development. 5.1 Effects of Technological Immersion on Presence and Transportation Firstly, results showed that even subtle technologi- cal immersion aspects promote presence. These findings indicate that presence, the feeling of being part of and having the opportunity to act in a virtual environment (Hartmann et al., 2015), increases with the extent of technological immersion (360° view, interaction). Previ- ous research mostly compared media that varied widely in their degree of technological immersion (e.g., Head Mounted Displays vs. Text; Fonseca & Kraus, 2016; Herrera et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2017). Compared to these investigations, the current study could highlight that even small technological immersion aspects, the 360° view and the possibility to actively look around in the immersive historical environment by using the mouse or keyboard, enhanced presence compared to video and text. According to Slater and Wilbur (1997), different technological properties are essential charac- teristics of immersive media: the extent of sensory input, surroundingness, vividness, and proprioceptive match- ing. As the present study could show higher presence values in the 360° video condition which offered sur- roundingness (360° view) and interactivity (look around in the 360° video by using the mouse or keyboard), it is not possible to fathom which technological property is the decisive factor for the experience of presence. How- ever, findings indicate that surroundingness and inter- activity might be important factors for the experience of presence. Consequently, even slightly immersive me- dia, like 360° videos, can involve people more deeply in historical content compared with standard videos and texts. In addition, results showed that technological immer- sion does not affect transportation, the feeling of diving into the narration (Green & Brock, 2000), as we found almost similar transportation values throughout all ex- perimental groups (360° video, video, text). This is in line with previous findings (Green et al., 2008; Press- grove & Bowman, 2021). Nevertheless, as transporta- tion values were almost similar across all experimental conditions, we can assume on a speculative level that transportation can occur in regular videos as well as 360° videos, which goes along with the assumption that trans- portation is not limited to textual narration (Green & Sestir, 2017). Moreover, our results highlight a strong relation be- tween presence and transportation. As presence is de- fined as “the sense of being there” (Lombard & Ditton, 1997), and transportation is considered as diving into narration (Green & Brock, 2000) the relation seems plausible in the first place and both constructs are partly also used synonymous (Nowak, 2001). Otherwise, lit- erature highlights that presence and transportation are different constructs (Hofer, 2013; Nowak, 2001; Wiss- math, Weibel, & Groner, 2009). Phillips and McQuarrie (2010) argued that presence is primarily considered as the reaction to visual elements, whereas narrative trans- portation is mainly grounded in the story plot. As men- tioned beforehand, our results support those assump- tions as well, as we found that presence depends on tech- nological immersion while transportation is not affected by technological immersion. Based on these findings, we can speculate that technological immersion does not af- fect the possibility of deeply diving into a story and may distract from the story itself (Balakrishnan & Sundar, 2011), as we only manipulated the extent of techno- logical immersion throughout the experimental groups (text, video, 360° video) and maintained the same story plot. Anyway, it is surprising that even though presence and transportation are highly related to each other, one of them depends on technological properties whereby l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . / e d u p v a r / a r t i c e - p d l f / d o i / . / / 1 0 1 1 6 2 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 3 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 p d . / f b y g u e s t t o n 0 7 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Frentzel-Beyme and Krämer 105 the other is not affected by technological properties. This indicates that even though both constructs were of- ten used synonymously (Agrawal et al., 2020; Nowak, 2001), presence might be a unique phenomenon of immersive media, whereby transportation might be a phenomenon of narrative media. 5.2 Effects of Presence and Transportation on Empathy Moreover, we could show that both presence and transportation promote non-context-specific empa- thy. These are essential findings as previous research on the relation between immersion and empathy fo- cused primarily on empathy regarding context-specific topics (e.g., environmental protection, attitudes to- ward homeless; Ahn et al., 2014; Breves, 2020; Her- rera et al., 2018; Shin, 2018). Furthermore, we were able to extend the effect of transportation on empathy to immersive media (360° videos), as previous research primarily focused on textual narration (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). These findings suggest that immersive media can be an effective means of increasing individuals’ general empathy. Additionally, our results highlight that trans- portation affects empathy stronger than presence, which indicates that narration might be an important factor in the elicitation of empathy through media. 5.3 Empathy and Moral Orientation Most importantly, building on these findings, we investigated based on experimental data that a re- lation between empathy and moral orientation exists (Kohlberg, 1958). We were able to demonstrate that a greater extent of empathy is associated with higher levels of moral orientation, according to Kohlberg’s (1958) moral stages. This confirms the assumption that supporting empathy is an important aspect of moral development and expands it through the findings that it can be supported through immersive historical environments. Nevertheless, our findings highlight that moral think- ing does not automatically predict moral behavioral in- tention, as results showed no relation between moral orientation and moral behavioral intention. This con- firms the “moral-action gap” that was also found in pre- vious research (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Hardy, 2006). However, we could reveal a relationship between em- pathy and moral behavioral intention. We disclosed that empathic people tend to behave more likely morally in daily-life situations. This strengthens the assumption of a relationship between empathy and morality (Eisen- berg et al., 2005; Kohlberg, 1958). Furthermore, it highlights the importance of empathy when focusing on morality. Based on our findings, we can conclude that immersive historical environments can support moral orientation as well as moral behavioral intention through promoting empathy. Furthermore, we assign a key role to empathy in the context of moral development, as both moral orientation and moral behavioral orienta- tion are positively affected by empathy. Based on this, we can assume that supporting empathy through immersive historical environments might be an effective and use- ful way to support an individual’s moral orientation and moral behavior. Additionally, against our expectations, we could not show that moral identity affects the relation of moral ori- entation to moral behavioral intention. However, data revealed a relation between empathy and moral identity. In more detail, findings indicate that empathy influences moral identity positively. These findings go along with the assumptions of Hardy and Carlo (2011), who as- sume that empathy, guilt, and shame build the base of moral identity. Additionally, these findings highlight the key role of empathy when focusing on moral orientation and moral behavior. 5.4 Emotional Impacts on Presence and Transportation Furthermore, our results support the assumption that immersion goes along with emotions (Green & Brock, 2000; Wirth, Hofer, & Schramm, 2012), as we found moderately positive relations between emotional involvement and transportation and presence. This is in line with previous research that highlighted that emo- tional involvement affects presence (Wirth et al., 2012). Moreover, based on our findings we can suppose that l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . / e d u p v a r / a r t i c e - p d l f / d o i / . / / 1 0 1 1 6 2 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 3 p r e s _ a _ 0 0 3 5 7 p d / . f b y g u e s t t o n 0 7 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 106 PRESENCE: VOLUME 29 the content’s emotionality of immersive historical envi- ronments plays a significant role when evoking presence. We showed that experiencing presence is accompanied by emotional involvement in the mediated environment. The findings highlight that especially producers of im- mersive historical applications should be aware of the extent of emotions the application’s content elicits as it could lead to emotional overload which has to be pre- vented to ensure the cognitive reflection of the viewed content (Bunnenberg, 2020). For instance, this applies to immersive historical applications that are dealing with terrible events of the past, which are always emotional (e.g., Berlin Hohenschönhausen, Anne Frank House; Rosenwein, 2001). Furthermore, it gives rise to the question of which role the content’s emotionality of immersive media plays when focusing on the creation of presence and transportation and, along with this, the promotion of empathy. In the light of the present study, we can assume that emotional immersive media content might be effective when trying to elicit empathy with the aid of immersive media, as we found that presence and transportation are positively related to empathy. eliciting media. As the current study focused on only one content that can be seen as moderate narrative and emotional, we recommend exploring differences in pres- ence, transportation, and empathy, depending on the extent of narration and emotionality of the presented immersive historical media content. Moreover, when fo- cusing on the relation of presence and transportation on empathy, research indicates that next to context-specific factors, personality factors are essential aspects. For in- stance, the need for affect, the extent individuals seek emotional situations, is named an important factor when focusing on the creation of empathy (Green & Sestir, 2017; Shin, 2018). Therefore, it might be interesting to examine interpersonal differences in transportation, presence, and empathy in this context, as well. Lastly, effects regarding moral behavioral intention have to be taken with care, as such kinds of measurements that deal with prosocial behavior intentions go along with a par- ticularly high social desirability (Fernandes & Randall, 1992). In this case, using implicit measures might be interesting for further research. 5.5 Limitations and Further Research 6 Conclusion It is always important to consider the study’s lim- itations when interpreting its findings. First, the gener- alizability of the findings is limited as the sample is not representative, because it contains a high number of female and highly educated individuals. Moreover, par- ticipants answered all questionnaires in the same order. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that due to a long time of participation (∼ 45 minutes) fatigue could have affected the answer behavior. Additionally, we have to note that we could not quite ensure that participants watched or read the stimulus material attentively, as we made use of an online experiment. Also, implications to virtual reality applications have to be taken with care, as we investigated only the effects of less immersive me- dia (360° videos). It might be useful to examine those effects in the context of more immersive technologies like head-mounted displays. Furthermore, the study gives rise to the question of which role narration and the content’s emotionality play when focusing on empathy- In summary, our findings support the assump- tion that immersive historical environments (e.g., 360° videos) can promote empathy and therefore support moral development. Firstly, our results showed that even subtle technological immersion aspects promote presence, the subjective experience of users to be in a computer-mediated environment, whereby it does not affect transportation, the immersion in narration. Based on this, we found that presence and transporta- tion play a significant role when eliciting empathy with the aid of immersive historical environments. Addi- tionally, we found that transportation has a stronger effect on an individual’s empathy than presence, which implicates an important role of narration in empathy- eliciting immersive historical environments. Further- more, we demonstrated that empathy promotes moral orientation and further highlighted the key role of empathy when focusing on moral development through immersive media. 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