A r t i s t s ’ A r t i c l e
Transformation of Buddhist mandalas
into a virtual reality Installation
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Technology can translocate traditional art into interactive, immersive
experiences. At the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, the authors
transformed Tibetan Buddhist mandalas into a 3D virtual reality mandala
installation. Furthering this project, they externalized an analog of
the meditative experience by recording electroencephalograms that
dynamically modulated the visual scene. The use of neurofeedback
allowed fluctuations in the alpha power to drive the intensity of the
fog obscuring the mandala. This aimed to give a sense of clearing
the fog with one’s mind in a meditation-like state. The collaboration
demonstrated how technology intended for scientific use may be
adapted to an artistic installation that enriches the visitor experience.
muSeum-ACAdemIC pArTnerShIp
Virtual reality (VR) adaptations of art pieces are a modern
cornerstone of museums of this time. One can take a VR
experience of the Mona Lisa at the Louvre [1]. The Dalí Mu-
seum created a surrealistic immersion into Salvador Dalí’s
world in Dreams of Dalí [2]. In essence, these are novel ways
to experience exhibits that heighten intimacy with the art-
works. What is rarer is a transformation of the exhibit that
blends the extant with the generative—to create a new piece
of VR art that is born of the original works yet is distinct. By
switching media, we find emergent properties in the artistic
progeny. The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco embraced
the challenge of utilizing VR to enhance the exhibit Awaken:
A Tibetan Buddhist Journey toward Enlightenment. Our team
Julia A. Scott (neuroscientist, researcher), Santa Clara University, School of
Engineering, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara, CA 95053, U.S.A.
E-mail: jscott1@scu.edu. ORCID: 0000-0002-8361-5259.
Max Sims (VR designer), 1095 Santa Cruz Avenue #1, Menlo Park, CA 94025,
U.S.A. E-mail: max@theia.io. ORCID: 0000-0003-1713-2280.
Lee Harrold (VR designer, computer engineer), Santa Clara University, Department
of Theatre Arts, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara, CA 95053, U.S.A.
E-mail: halzinnia@gmail.com.
Nicole Jacobus (music designer), San Francisco Conservatory of Music, 50 Oak
Street, San Francisco, CA 94102, U.S.A. E-mail: nicole.yazmin.jacobus@gmail.com.
Cecilia Avelar (arts educator), Canal Alliance, 91 Larkspur Street, San Rafael,
CA 94901, U.S.A. E-mail: cece.avelar@gmail.com.
Jeffrey Durham (religious studies professor, museum curator), Asian Art Museum
of San Francisco, 200 Larkin Street, San Francisco, CA 94102, U.S.A.
E-mail: jdurham@asianart.org.
See https://direct.mit.edu/leon/issue/55/3 for supplemental files associated with
this issue.
created a VR installation (Mandala Flow State) inspired by
the mandalas of the exhibit and integrated elements of the ex-
hibit’s story that were not possible in a traditional experience.
Below, we show how this installation affected the experience
of museumgoers.
Experiencing art objects in a museum setting has, until
relatively recently, by definition been a dualistic experience
wherein a viewing subject confronts a viewed object [3].
The geometric meditation diagrams called mandalas, on the
other hand, are a kind of artistic form that are explicitly cre-
ated in Tibetan Buddhist artistic and meditative traditions
to undermine subject-object perception through conscious
visualization [4]. By visualizing a mandala in full detail and
replicating it within the mind’s eye, meditators experience
a vision that appears in multiple spatial dimensions but is
nonetheless devoid of substance. To have such a perceptual
experience—one in which the percept is recognized as both
subject and object—amounts to the perfection of wisdom
itself. The Prajnaparamita-hrdaya-sutra and many related
Mahayana texts describe the nondual summum bonum,
which transcends subject and object, in terms of the unity
of emptiness (shunyata) and form (rupa) [5].
It can take decades to reach the levels of meditative skill
that make such perceptions possible. Virtual reality, Tuttavia,
has the potential to catalyze a subjective, multidimensional
perception that is hypothetically a functional equivalent to
meditative realization of the type described above. In 2010,
the VR company EON Reality created a 3D Kalachakra man-
dala that could be virtually “entered” through an Oculus
headset. According to University of Miami officials, “It was
very well received by His Holiness” [6]. This platform does
not have a tangible, physical form, which made for an excel-
lent opportunity to explore the phenomenological potential
of a VR transformation of the mandala theme within the
Awaken exhibit in a secular but contemplative setting. IL
Asian Art Museum has experimented with creating physi-
cally constituted mandala environments [7]. Così, while
the nested squares and circles characteristic of mandala
©2022 ISAST
https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_a_02145
LEONARDO, Vol. 55, No. 3, pag. 219–224, 2022 219
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geometries define the visual architectonics of Mandala Flow
State, the highly coded iconography of sacred mandalas,
some of which appear in the exhibit, is not reproduced.
The other side of this story is the challenge for the sci-
entist to reach the public. For researchers, the default is to
remain insular within one’s discipline. Tuttavia, in many
arms of science, such as neuroscience, communicating the
philosophy and facts to the broader community can be a
central goal. The science may inform values and attitudes
that drive personal or social decision-making and accep-
tance of potential medical or behavioral interventions.
There are clear examples of this two-way engagement model
[8] in recent collaborations between artists and scientists.
A-me adapted augmented reality (AR) neurosurgical tools
to communicate the relevance of localization in the brain
in the context of memory [9]. The installation Mental Work
probed the question of separation of human and machine
by using extracted signals from electroencephalograms
(EEGs) to control geared machines inspired by the Victo-
rian era [10]. My Virtual Dream pulled together the social
nature of being by taking collective EEGs from 20 people
to generate a live musical performance and dynamic dome
projection [11]. The latter two works took advantage of the
principles of neurofeedback, which trains a user to modify
their brain activity. The work we present here also uses neu-
rofeedback. We link neurofeedback to meditative practices
by using brain signals to modulate the VR experience. By
making this link, we can show how neurofeedback is used
therapeutically in a manner similar to meditation.
Out of these motivations, Mandala Flow State (MFS) era
born. The museum’s and researcher’s needs were both met
through the mind meld of the neurofeedback VR installa-
zione. The sections below describe the inspiration, design and
outcomes of the installation. We found that neurofeedback
VR provided an opportunity for contemplative experience in
which the boundary between subject and object, mind and
matter, is called radically into question. Inoltre, insofar
as it provides a platform for common experiential discussion
across knowledge systems, we believe it will have therapeutic
and dialogic applications.
Mandala Flow State deSIgn
In MFS, the user is directed to relax while concentrating on
the mandala as it is revealed from its center outward and the
music that progresses deliberately through the experience.
The mandala and the soundscape are intended to promote
focused relaxation. The scene is covered in a thick fog filter.
The clearing of the fog is linked to the EEG signals, Quale
correlate with focused relaxation. This element acts as the
neurofeedback informing the user of the change in brain ac-
attività. In conjunction, the feedforward and feedback elements
are analogous to the visualization and shifting mental state
of meditation, rispettivamente.
neurofeedback System
MFS demonstrates the principles of neurofeedback. In brief,
neurofeedback is the externalization of brain signals into a
perceptible form for the purposes of modulating thought
and behavior [12]. Neurofeedback is a closed-loop system
in which the user is the central point. The measured brain
activity signal is transmitted to a computer, which then pro-
cesses the signal to convert it to a control parameter for an
produzione, such as a visual graded cue. The user attempts to
change the stimulus representing the specific brain activity
in a directed manner. The user improves over many ses-
sions by maintaining the prescribed level of brain activity
for longer durations in each session. While various ways of
measuring brain activity are possible, we chose to use EEG
for our system for its accessibility and physical compatibil-
ity with VR headsets.
Neurofeedback therapy is based on an analysis of the
frequency spectrum of brain activity at specific EEG chan-
nels [13]. Cognitive neuroscience research has shown that
particular profiles of relative frequency band contribution
to the total brain activity are reliably associated with stereo-
typed mental states. In our application, we made use of the
EEG pattern for focused relaxation. This mental state is as-
sociated with low autonomic arousal and strong attentive-
ness to internal thought processes or external stimuli [14].
Focused relaxation is marked by elevated alpha power in
multiple brain regions, including anterior frontal cortices.
In studies of mindfulness-based meditation, increased alpha
power is found during the meditative state [15]. The empiri-
cal evidence indicating a reliable connection between an-
terior frontal alpha and spontaneous and induced states of
mental relaxation led to our selection of this metric for our
neurofeedback system. MFS is designed to promote focused
relaxation through the sensory experience and to model the
modulation of alpha power via the neurofeedback signals.
In theory, the learning that occurs in the neurofeedback ses-
sions transfers to real-life circumstances such that a person
is better able to maintain or induce a calmer disposition and
clearer thinking when needed [16]. As an enhancement to
the museumgoers’ experience of Awaken, our system aimed
to externalize the guided imagery of meditative visualization
of Tibetan mandalas.
Vr Mandala Design
In designing MFS, we adopted the abstract and architectural
elements of the traditional mandalas but did not attempt to
appropriate overt religious symbolism and iconography. IL
3D mandala had seven layers of circles and squares built from
repeated design elements (Fig. 1). The design elements were
created procedurally in Substance for novel geometric pat-
terns. Traditional Tibetan motifs were selected from original
sources with Creative Commons licenses. The environment
and UV mapping were modeled in Maya. Unity was used as
the hub of the animation, geometry and signal processing; Esso
also drove all of the interaction and timing. Technical details
of the VR design are reported in the supplemental materials.
The features of the experience and mandala design are
shown in Fig. 2. The mandala was gradually revealed through
a growing circular aperture. As the mandala progressed, IL
central point was pulled to greater depths to create flow and
220 Scott et al., Transformation of Buddhist Mandalas into a Virtual Reality Installation
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have been otherwise achieved. The closure of the experience
was a disintegration of the mandala scene by a speckling fil-
ter and spiral convolution to mimic the appearance of the
sweeping away of sand mandalas.
Vr Music Design
The music was written by Nicole Jacobus with the intention
of guiding the viewer into a meditative state. The music also
drew upon proven methods of music meditation and healing.
While there are many inspirations for this piece, the most
significant inspirations were Tibetan music and modern
minimalism. It was essential to create something that could
repeat and shift between Tibetan and Western instrumenta-
tion while not overpowering the visuals. The musical time
course aligned with the VR time course such that there was
a three-stage progression (Fig. 2): (1) opening/groundwork,
(2) piano/focus, E (3) piano and traditional instruments/
ending. The music helped to promote immersion into the
VR environment by masking ambient noise and involving
more senses in the experience [17]. The description of the
composition is in the supplemental materials.
Fig. 1. The Mandala of Vajrabhairava, the primary guidance for Mandala
Flow State. The design elements may be seen in architecture, motifs and color
scheme [18]. Image courtesy of Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The Avery
Brundage Collection, B63D5.
distance and to make space in the scene for the additional
layers. The full mandala filled the visual scene by 180° and re-
quired looking up, down, right and left to see the edges, giv-
ing the illusion of being inside the mandala universe. These
VR features contributed to the immersivity, which could not
Data Flow
The neurofeedback system is diagrammed in Fig. 3 and de-
tailed in the supplemental materials. Primo, the Muse EEG
transmitted absolute alpha (8–13 Hz) power from AF 7/8
channels via Muse Direct to Unity extOSC. Prossimo, the data
is processed to smoothly control the neurofeedback param-
eter (density of the fog shader) within Unity in real time.
Consequently, an increase in alpha signal proportionately
decreased the appearance of the fog.
Fig. 2. Progression of the MFS experience: (UN) introductory temple column; (B) depth side view of mandala and fog cloud filter, (C) front view of fog overlaid on
mandala; (D) front view of a completed mandala without fog filter; (e) example Tibetan and Substance motifs; (F) mandala with sand and twirl filters. (© Julia A. Scott)
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Scott et al., Transformation of Buddhist Mandalas into a Virtual Reality Installation 221
treated farther in depth as the progressive layers
of mandala were revealed. During the core of
the experience, the user attempted to relax and
the appearance of the fog indicated the level of
relaxation. When the mandala reached its full-
ness after 6 minutes, the fog cleared and the
mandala was swept away.
For the purposes of visualization in the instal-
lation, the raw EEG and the relative alpha power
for AF 7/8 were displayed using Muse Lab. IL
graphs were displayed alongside the participant’s
VR experience for museum visitors to see and
so in essence peer into the experience and mind
of the participant. The simulcast engaged mu-
seum visitors widely, creating a more communal
experience.
Our observations on the session activity were
from our general impressions of and user feed-
back from the sessions. Our team noticed that
novice users of VR did not attend to the fog
modulation; Piuttosto, they were in an exploratory
state in the novel experience. Consequently, IL
fog fluctuated without a pattern and stayed rela-
tively thick, as they were not in a state of focused
relaxation. Other users stated that they could not
detect a connection between their efforts and
the fog. In response, we explained that the abil-
ity to do so is reliant upon greater practice, just
like meditation. This gave us the opportunity to
explain how neurofeedback works. Those who
came into the experience with a strong ability to
induce a state of focused relaxation, like medi-
tation practitioners, did reduce the level of fog
for noticeable periods (30–60 seconds). Questo
anecdotal observation points in the direction of
the technical accuracy of the system design, Quello
È, focused relaxation is correlated with greater
alpha power and the derived standardized score changes the
fog density to a perceptible level. The collective insights from
the diverse array of visitors elicited discussions with design-
ers Julia Scott and Max Sims, which is the essence of the
two-way model of engagement. The guide for facilitators is
provided in the supplemental materials.
Fig. 3. Data flow: Brain activity was measured by the Muse headset and relayed to the
Muse Direct program, which processed the raw data to meaningful signals. Prior to input to
Unity control parameters, the signals were normalized. The VR experience built upon the 3D
scene, mandala, sound design and neurofeedback calibration of the fog. The application was
delivered to the user on an Oculus Rift S. (© Julia A. Scott)
user experience
An overview of the experience is charted in Fig. 4. IL
experience starts with the interior column of a Buddhist
temple, where users had the opportunity to acclimate and
the calibration of the EEG signal was conducted. A singing
bowl chime signaled the start of the experience. From the
center of the field of view, the mandala emerged and re-
Fig. 4. Idealized user experience: The EEG-based neurofeedback signal, the mandala progression and the accompanying soundscape work as parallel processes
that create a holistic user experience. (© Julia A. Scott)
222 Scott et al., Transformation of Buddhist Mandalas into a Virtual Reality Installation
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Fig. 5. Participant feedback on Mandala Flow State: Percentage of respondents for each item is reported. (© Julia A. Scott)
participant Feedback
We collected survey results from 44 participants on four
dates in February 2020 (Fig. 5). For more than half the par-
ticipants, this was their introductory experience with VR.
This showed the museum installation was an effective means
of introducing emerging technologies to the public. Of those
who viewed the exhibit ahead of our installation, 89% found
a moderate to strong connection between the two. This syn-
ergy was a primary goal for the museum and was largely
achieved by this evidence.
While participants’ relaxation states mostly stayed the
same (51%), a large segment (39%) reported an increased feel-
ing of relaxation afterward. Given the first-time exposure to
the experience and the public setting, we find this outcome
encouraging. In examining the design and user experience,
we look to the survey of VR features. Overwhelmingly, par-
ticipants liked the music as well as the motifs and geometric
designs. The pacing, immersivity and color features were met
with splits in preference, which gave direction for redesign
for future versions that would mute the color scheme and
increase the pace. User comments are listed in the supple-
mental materials.
ConCluSIon
Our goals were to (1) attract a more diverse pool of visitors
to the Asian Art Museum, (2) enhance the museumgoers’
experience of the Awaken exhibit and (3) educate the pub-
lic on the topic of neurofeedback. We achieved all of these
marks. Many people came expressly to participate in MFS,
as they were interested in the interactive VR experience. Questo
brought more people through the museum doors who would
then explore the museum widely. Specifically, more people
came to Awaken and found more meaning in their walk-
through of the gallery. People who watched or participated
in the installation reported a genuine connection with the
theme of the exhibit. Through this connection, MFS provided
many people a first-time exposure to VR technology and
neurofeedback applications. The partnership supported the
needs of both parties and created an experience that could
not have been realized individually.
acknowledgments
We thank the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco for the opportunity
to showcase MFS. This project was funded by the BioInnovation and
Design Lab and Center for Arts and Humanities of Santa Clara Univer-
sity, and the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco.
references and notes
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7
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Scott et al., Transformation of Buddhist Mandalas into a Virtual Reality Installation 223
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Manuscript received 1 Dicembre 2020.
Julia a. Scott is a research associate for Santa Clara Uni-
versity in the BioInnovation and Design Lab. She uses her neu-
roscience training to develop biofeedback platforms in virtual
reality.
Max R. SiMS is a senior product manager for Theia Interac-
tive, a VR software for evaluating cognitive load and other
lee HaRRold is a systems engineer at Epic Hosting, LLC.
He holds a BA in theater arts from Santa Clara University. Lui
uses his design training and Unity3D experience to build VR
programs.
Nicole JacobuS is a master’s student in music, technol-
ogy and applied composition at San Francisco Conservatory
of Music. She holds BA degrees in communications and music
from Santa Clara University.
cecilia avelaR is an education program assistant at Ca-
nal Alliance. She earned an art history BA from Santa Clara
Università.
JeffRey d uRHaM is associate curator of Himalayan art at
the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Previously, he served
as professor of religious studies at St. Thomas Aquinas College
and the University of North Carolina.
224 Scott et al., Transformation of Buddhist Mandalas into a Virtual Reality Installation
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