Richard A. Shweder - Recherche en IA spécialisée au MIT

Richard A. Shweder

George W. Bush &
the missionary position

Jesus Christ is George W. Bush’s favorite

political philosopher–or so he said in a
Republican primary debate leading up
to his nomination. And the president’s
sense of mission runs deep. Speaking
with evangelical zeal well over a year be-
fore the invasion of Iraq, President Bush
delivered one of his earliest and most
broadly appealing justi½cations for the
project of global nation building as a
moral crusade. He spoke with an uncan-
ny prescience and with intimations of
the preemptive use of American force to
promote human progress.

The date was January 29, 2002. The oc-

casion was Mr. Bush’s ½rst State of the
Union address to Congress and the na-
tion after the terrorist attacks of Septem-
ber 11. Listen carefully to his augury:

Richard A. Shweder, a cultural anthropologist, est
the William Claude Reavis Distinguished Service
Professor of Human Development at the Univer-
sity of Chicago, a Carnegie Scholar, and the au-
thor of “Why Do Men Barbecue?: Recipes for
Cultural Psychology” (2003). He has been a Fel-
low of the American Academy since 1997. Parts
of this essay are drawn from a keynote address,
“The Idea of Moral Progress: Bush versus Posner
versus Berlin,” presented at the 2003 meeting of
the Philosophy of Education Society.

America will lead by defending liberty and
justice because they are right and true and
unchanging for all people everywhere. Non
nation owns these aspirations and no na-
tion is exempt from them. We have no in-
tention of imposing our culture, mais
America will always stand ½rm for the
non-negotiable demands of human digni-
ty, the rule of law, limits on the power of
the state, respect for women, private prop-
erty, free speech, equal justice and reli-
gious tolerance.

Those are weighty and portentous words
from a leader who believes that Ameri-
can wealth and power should be used to
uphold a universal framework for pro-
moting social, politique, and moral devel-
opment on a global scale–a framework,
the speech strongly implies, that is gov-
erned by a transcendent moral force.

This State of the Union message sub-
sequently became one of the philosophi-
cal foundations for U.S. foreign policy.
The president’s words seemed convinc-
ing to a majority of Americans, regard-
less of their location on the political
spectrum. In the ½fteen months leading
up to the war against Iraq it became ap-
parent that one did not have to be a
born-again Christian to be inspired by
his address. Mr. Bush’s perfectly pitched
and high-minded imperial tone of moral
progressivism and his discourse of liber-

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George W.
Bush & le
missionary
position

ation and human rights struck a chord
that was music to the ears of interven-
tionists on both the Left and the Right.
His words produced a harmonic (et
hormonal) patriotic response from reli-
gious fundamentalists and ‘American
exceptionalists’ such as the neoconserv-
ative commentator David Brooks, pour
whom the mere mention of moral equiv-
alence–the idea that the American way
de la vie, while unique, is only one among
many morally decent and rationally
defensible ways of life–is a sign of self-
hatred or ethical weakness.

His sense of mission was also ardently

embraced by liberals of many stripes–
Tony Blair, Hillary Clinton, Thomas
Friedman, human rights activists like
Michael Ignatieff, sexual revolutionar-
ies, as well as ½rst-world feminists, many
of whom believe that female gender in-
terests are universal and that the sisters
of the world should unite against any
form of life that deviates from ½rst-
world feminist conceptions of work,
famille, sexuality, and gender roles.

Even a good many citizens who have a
profound secular aversion to the invoca-
tion of Jesus Christ in public political
forums or a strong humanistic distaste
for jingoism or for strident nationalistic
political conservatism supported the
military campaign, in some measure be-
cause of their faith in the existence of
natural or inalienable values and non-
negotiable demands of precisely the sort
invoked by President Bush. Thus many
Americans both on the Right and on the
Left felt neither shocked nor awed, mais
rather proud and justi½ed, when the
bombs that fell on Baghdad in the
spring of 2003 were dropped carrying
the Orwellian inscription “Operation
Iraqi Freedom.”

The president’s address gave forceful

expression to the idea that America has

an obligation–a burden, as the British
once called it–to promulgate objective
and universally binding moral stan-
dards, Par exemple, by “defending liber-
ty and justice because they are right and
true and unchanging for all people ev-
erywhere.” This intellectual stance may
be called missionary moral progressivism.
Here I want to focus on three of George
W. Bush’s key claims in his 2002 State of
the Union address:
1. that there are non-negotiable de-

mands for the design of any decent
society;

2. that those demands are non-negotia-
ble precisely because they are ground-
ed on matters of fact concerning uni-
versal moral truths, and not simply
because the president or the people
of the most powerful and wealthy na-
tion in the world happen to like them
or embrace them as their own ideals;
et

3. that these universal moral truths can
be de½ned in ways that are (un) sub-
stantial enough to allow the United
States to lead the world in the direc-
tion of progressive social, politique,
and cultural reform, and also (b) ob-
jective enough to avoid the hazards of
cultural parochialism and ethnocen-
trism–for, as he states, “we have no
intention of imposing our culture.”
Plus récemment, on April 4, 2004, in a
public denunciation of the Iraqi insur-
gency movement, Mr. Bush made these
points this way: “We love freedom and
they hate freedom–that’s where the
clash occurs. Freedom is not America’s
gift to the world; it is God’s gift to the
world.”

The idea of “right and true” moral
ideals (ou, for those who are more theo-
logically minded, of “God’s gift to the
world”) is potentially appealing. After
tous, if such truths exist, then they can be

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Richard A.
Shweder
sur
progress

used to de½ne an objective universal
standard for assessing moral progress.
The existence of objective goods–uni-
versally binding moral values or inalien-
able natural rights–would place every-
un (insiders and outsiders, minority
and majority factions) within a single
frame of reference for judging what is
right and wrong. It would lend rational
authority to those who are well posi-
tioned or well organized enough to do
the right thing. Interventions (politique,
économique, or military) might then be
justi½ed, so long as they are done for the
sake of what is right and true–or, as Bob
Dylan once facetiously put it, “with God
on our side.”

If there really does exist a blueprint (pour

example, the Constitution of the United
States of America) for the design of the
single best human society, then resist-
ance to the impulse to promote human
progress on a global scale is irrational.
But that is a very big ‘if.’ In the face of
righteous appeals to use this country’s
power and wealth to promote universal
moral progress, a particular doubt some-
times arises in the minds of thoughtful
people. Let’s call it the Bob Dylan ques-
tion: Is it really possible to formulate a
meaningful statement about moral
droits, goods, duties, and values that is
free of ethnocentrism, political self-
interest, or the hazards of projecting
one’s own local or denominational
point of view? Those who have ratio-
nal doubts, or even fears, about right-
eous crusades justi½ed in the name of
universal moral progress harbor such
anxieties because they suspect that
the whole enterprise is a form of high-
minded imperial domination by those
who are powerful or wealthy enough to
mandate that everyone should see and
value the world in only one way, namely,
according to the dominant group’s pre-

ferred (and quite possibly parochial) ensemble
of values.

It is one thing to assert that there are

universal objective truths about the
physical world–for example, that force
equals mass times acceleration every-
where you go on the globe. It is quite
another to assert that the existing con-
temporary social norms and moral judg-
ments of one’s own group are not prod-
ucts of local history, contexte, preference,
or taste, but rather are accurate repre-
sentations of universal moral facts. Hu-
man arrogance assumes many forms,
but it appears undisguised when those
in possession of power and wealth assert
that whatever they desire is the kind of
thing that all morally decent and fully
rational human beings ought to desire,
regardless of history, contexte, and cul-
ture. Or so the worry goes.

One way to get a better sense of the
skeptic’s response to such generalized
moral progressivism is to reflect on a
counterclaim that is common to the doc-
trines of pluralism, relativism, subjec-
tivism, and contextualism. While those
four doctrines are distinguishable from
l'un l'autre (Par exemple, not all plural-
ists are subjectivists), they share the con-
viction that anyone who asserts that his
or her own particular moral judgments
are universally right and true is probably
wrong. Consider, Par exemple, the cri-
tique of the idea of non-negotiable mor-
al demands and right and true values de-
veloped by U.S. Appellate Judge (et
University of Chicago legal scholar)
Richard Posner, who is both a moral
subjectivist and a moral relativist of
sorts.

In his 1997 Oliver Wendell Holmes
Lectures at Harvard University titled
“The Problematics of Moral and Legal
Theory,” Judge Posner states:

I shall be arguing ½rst of all that morality
is local, and that there are no interesting

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George W.
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position

moral universals. There are tautological
ones, such as “murder is wrong,” where
“murder” means “wrongful killing,” or
“bribery is wrong,” where bribery means
“wrongful paying.” But what counts as
murder, or as bribery, varies enormously
from society to society. There are a hand-
ful of rudimentary principles of social co-
operation–such as don’t lie all the time or
don’t break promises without any reason
or kill your relatives or neighbors indis-
criminately–that may be common to all
human societies, and if one wants to call
these rudimentary principles the universal
moral law, that is ½ne with me. But they
are too abstract to be criterial. Meaningful
moral realism is therefore out, and a form
(not every form) of moral relativism is in.
Relativism in turn invites an adaptationist
conception of morality, in which morality
is judged–nonmorally, in the way that a
hammer might be judged well or poorly
adapted to its goal of hammering nails in-
to wood or plaster–by its contribution to
the survival, or other ultimate goals, of a
society or some group within it. Moral rel-
ativism implies that the expression “moral
progress” must be used with great cau-
tion, because it is perspectival rather than
objective; moral progress is in the eye of
the beholder.1

In his Harvard lectures, Judge Posner
offers a sustained attack on the idea that
there are right and true universal moral
facts that can be usefully applied by lead-
ers to resolve moral disputes between
groupes. He embraces moral subjectiv-
ism, in the sense that he believes that
there are no reasonably concrete trans-
cultural moral truths–thus, in effect,
implying that there is no independent or

1 Richard A. Posner, The Problematics of Moral
and Legal Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
Presse universitaire, 1999), 6; and Posner, “The
Oliver Wendell Holmes Lectures: The Problem-
atics of Moral and Legal Theory,” Harvard Law
Review 111 (7) (1998): 1637–1717.

transcendent or objective domain of the
right and the true, no “objective order of
goodness” to which one might appeal to
rationally justify one’s particular judg-
ments about what is right or wrong. Pos-
ner allows that he is a moral relativist, dans
that he believes “that the criteria for pro-
nouncing a moral claim valid are given
by the culture in which the claim is
advanced rather than by some transcul-
tural (‘universal’) source of moral val-
ues, so that we cannot, except for polem-
ical effect, call another immoral unless
we add ‘by our lights.’”2 He argues that
“many moral claims are just the gift
wrapping of theoretically ungrounded
(and ungroundable) preferences and
aversions.” Those relatively few moral
claims that are unchanging for all people
partout, he suggests, are unchanging
and universal primarily because they are
empty truisms or abstract tautologies,
devoid of any useful content. It is possi-
ble that Judge Posner might admire Pres-
ident Bush’s speech for its polemical ef-
fect, but presumably not for the truth of
its message.

Another kind of skeptical response

to missionary moral progressivism in-
volves considering the character and
implications of the historical and cross-
cultural persistence of deep human dis-
agreements about the design of a good
society. Consider, Par exemple, what the
philosopher Stuart Hampshire, en écrivant
ten years prior to the events of Septem-
ber 11, had to say about what he de-
scribes as “the outstanding political
problem of our time.”

The political problem, as Hampshire

perceives it, is the relation between
“self-consciously traditional societies”
and “liberal democratic societies.” In

2 Posner, The Problematics of Moral and Legal
Theory, 8.

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Richard A.
Shweder
sur
progress

self-consciously traditional societies, il
suggests, “priests of the church, or rab-
bis or imams or mullahs, and other ex-
perts in the will of God maintain a single
conception of the good which deter-
mines the way of life of the society as a
whole.” Liberal democratic societies, dans
contraste, “permit, or encourage, a plural-
ity of conceptions of the good.” By his
account:

The severity of this problem was for a long
time concealed by the belief in a positivist
theory of modernization, a theory that is
traceable to the French Enlightenment.
The positivists believed that all societies
across the globe will gradually discard
their traditional attachments to supernat-
ural forces because of the need for ration-
al, scienti½c and experimental methods of
thought which a modern industrial econo-
my involves. This is the old faith, wide-
spread in the 19th Century, that there
must be a step-by-step convergence on
liberal values, on “our values.” We now
know that there is no “must” about it and
that all such theories of human history
have a predictive value of zero.

Hampshire goes on to say:

En fait, it is not only possible but, on the
present evidence, probable that most con-
ceptions of the good, and most ways of
vie, which are typical of commercial, lib-
eral, industrialized societies will often
seem altogether hateful to substantial mi-
norities within these societies and even
more hateful to most of the populations
within traditional societies in other conti-
nents. As a liberal by philosophical con-
viction, I think I ought to expect to be
hated, and to be found to be super½cial
and contemptible, by a large part of man-
kind. In looking for principles of mini-
mum justice, one needs to see that one’s
way of life and habits of speech and of
thought, not only seem wrong to large
populations [mais] can be repugnant in

very much the same way in which alien
habits of eating, or alien sexual customs,
can be repugnant.3

If Hampshire is right, then that sense

of repugnance is likely to be mutual.
Witness, Par exemple, the utter con-
tempt with which human rights activ-
ists–hailing mostly from liberal com-
mercial industrialized societies and from
descendents of Westernized elite popu-
lations in former ½rst-world colonies–
often react to the beliefs and practices
concerning gender, discipline, sexuality,
modesty, dress, reproduction, famille
vie, etc.. endorsed by majority popula-
tions in Africa and Asia. If Hampshire is
droite, then that mutual sense of repug-
nance is not likely to go away, in part
because there are just too many values,
and no universally binding and rational
way to determine for all times and places
which of them ought to be given priority
in the design of the good society. Under
such conditions of rational uncertainty,
political wisdom may favor the balanc-
ing of power, rather than the mere asser-
tion of it, for the sake of a sustainable
live-and-let-live policy of mutual co-
existence. Whether mutual repugnance
might then one day be transformed into
mutual sufferance, or even mutual toler-
ation, remains to be seen. Hoping for a
mutuality of understanding may be ask-
ing for too much–though one still may
hope.

For some years my colleagues and I

have been conducting research on moral
reasoning by women and men in a Hin-
du temple town in India and in a secular
middle-class community in the United

3 Stuart Hampshire, “Nationalism,” in Edna
Margalit and Avishai Margalit, éd., Isaiah
Berlin: Une fête (Londres: Hogarth Press,
1991); and Hampshire, “1991 Presidential Ad-
dress,” American Philosophical Association Pro-
ceedings 65 (1991): 19–27.

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George W.
Bush & le
missionary
position

États. The moral judgments of the resi-
dents of these two communities diverge
on many issues–for example, on wheth-
er an arranged marriage is preferable to a
‘love marriage’; whether family honor is
more important than personal freedom;
whether a refusal to treat a patient at a
hospital is more serious or less serious
than a violation of pollution norms or
of food taboos; and whether the sexual
division of labor in the family is moral or
immoral.

The moral views of the men and

women within each of the two cultural
communities are very similar. But across
the two cultural communities the moral
views of members of the same sex differ
in many ways: when one looks at con-
crete moral judgments worldwide, là
is no universal moral ‘sisterhood,’ just
as there is no universal moral ‘brother-
hood.’ Moreover, each community has
somewhat different conceptions of
which values and moral goods are most
important in life. The predominantly
secular middle-class Americans (female
and male) emphasize what might be
called the ethics of autonomy, lequel
includes an elaborate discourse about
the freedom to have the things you want,
social equality, and human rights. Mean-
alors que, the Hindus (female and male) dans
the Indian temple town emphasize what
might be called the ethics of community
and the ethics of divinity, which includes
an elaborate discourse about duty, sacri-
½ce, loyalty, purity, pollution, and per-
sonal sanctity.4

When conducting this type of research
in comparative ethics, one witnesses two
historically grounded communities,
each full of men and women who invoke
local conceptions of truth and virtue,
and who justify their social norms in the
light of those conceptions. While con-
ducting this type of research one also
frequently observes the astonishment,
dismay, and at times outrage and revul-
sion experienced by members of each
community when they realize just how
different their convictions, judgments,
and feelings about right and wrong can
be from those of people in other lands.
Bien sûr, the existence of persistent
differences in values or in views about
the nature of a good society does not
necessarily imply a hostile or aggressive
clash of cultures; après tout, human histo-
ry–aside from the intermittent periods
of conflict–has been about ½nding a
way to live and let live in a world of
unavoidable differences. Only monists
and missionaries think that differences
must be removed, or that differences
will just disappear once everyone is ‘lib-
erated’ and free to see the light.

There is a third way to get a better sense

of the skeptic’s response to missionary
moral progressivism–by recognizing
that right and true values are not lived
timelessly and in the abstract but, rather,
that they are always made manifest and
given character in some here and now,
in some local, thickly substantive, et
history-laden tradition of value.

4 Voir, Par exemple, Richard A. Shweder, Homme-
amohan Mahapatra, and Joan G. Miller, “Cul-
ture and Moral Development,” in James Stigler,
Richard A. Shweder, and Gilbert Herdt, éd.,
Cultural Psychology: Essays in the Comparative
Study of Human Development (New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1990); originally pub-
lished in Jerome Kagan and Sharon Lamb, éd.,
The Emergence of Morality in Young Children (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). Rich-

ard A. Shweder, Nancy C. Much, Manamohan
Mahapatra, and Lawrence Park, “The Big Three
of Morality (Autonomy, Community and Di-
vinity) and the Big Three Explanations of Suf-
fering,” in Richard A. Shweder, Why Do Men
Barbecue?: Recipes for Cultural Psychology (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Presse universitaire de Harvard, 2003);
originally published in Allan Brandt and Paul
Rozin, éd., Morality and Health (New York:
Routledge, 1997).

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Richard A.
Shweder
sur
progress

In his State of the Union address,
President Bush called on Americans to
defend and promote right and true val-
ues that are unchanging for all people
partout, such as free speech, respect
for women, and limits on the power of
the state–but he added the disarming
quali½cation that “We have no inten-
tion of imposing our culture.” His words
seem to suggest that he wants the United
States to exercise moral leadership (c'est à dire.,
to use our wealth and military power to
build new nations), but without being
parochial or ethnocentric in our concep-
tion of progress.

All this sounds well and good, at least
in the abstract–but what do his words
mean concretely? One might interpret
them as implying that he is not an Amer-
ican exceptionalist; that he is not in pos-
session of an imperial vision of a single
best way of life to be enforced or pro-
moted by well-½nanced, powerful, et
coercive national (or ½rst-world) institu-
tion; that he does not really believe that
the currently occupied or soon to be oc-
cupied peoples or nations of the world
should be strongly encouraged or re-
shaped to be just like the United States
in their social, politique, famille, and gen-
der norms. Taken literally and seriously,
his quali½cation that “We have no in-
tention of imposing our culture” might
even suggest that Mr. Bush recognizes
that the abstract ideals of free speech,
equal justice, religious tolerance, respect
for women, and so forth may take very
different forms in different religious,
cultural, moral, and legal traditions. Son
words might even lead us to suppose
that he recognizes that right and true
values are often in conflict with each
other and may be weighed and balanced
differently and valued in different de-
grees by rational and morally decent
people in other societies.

On the other hand, perhaps the presi-

dent’s careful language should not be

pris au sérieux. It is possible to read his
quali½cation simply as an ambiguous
aside, or even as a calculated rhetorical
device designed to counter accusations
that the United States is not a humble
nation and is really just intent on con-
trolling the world and spreading its way
of life hither and yon. So before follow-
ing the president on his moral mission,
one would like to be clear about what
precisely he has in mind when he ap-
peals to universal values and enumerates
his non-negotiable demands. What are
the speci½c shape and substance of those
demands? What are their policy impli-
cations?

Par exemple, are we to believe that
current interpretations of the right to
freedom of speech in the United States
should be universally binding? In the
États-Unis, the right to freedom of
speech allows public expressions of
hatred for ethnic, racial, and religious
groupes. That is not true in India and
many other parts of the world where
ethnic conflict is a potential threat to
social order, and hence communal hate
speech and even blasphemy is against
la loi. Would Mr. Bush, having no in-
tention to impose our culture on others,
accept that other nations might legiti-
mately interpret the right to free speech
more restrictively, or at least have a dif-
ferent view of what counts as a clear and
present danger?

Are we to believe that our principle
of the separation of church and state,
which disallows the promulgation of
theological doctrines in our public
schools, should be universally binding?
Or would the president allow, out of re-
spect for cultural differences, that Ger-
many, like other European nations
where religious instruction is an option
in the public schools, is entitled to its
somewhat different design for society,
guided by its own historical lights? Are
we to believe that current interpreta-

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George W.
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tions of the right to family privacy in the
United States are non-negotiable? In the
États-Unis, the right to family privacy
makes it unthinkable that the power of
the state could be exercised to create the
kind of laws restricting the number of
children allowed per family that China
has enacted to counter overpopulation.
Would our president accept that other
nations might legitimately interpret the
right to family privacy differently?

What about the ideal of respect for
femmes? Is that ideal compatible with
Muslim and Hindu traditions of family
values in which women gain power and
feel digni½ed by virtue of being guard-
ians of the home?5 Would the president,
not wanting to impose our culture on
others, grant that there are cultural lo-
cations in the world where wearing
sexually suggestive, or ‘immodest,'
modes of dress in public is socially pro-
hibited in some measure out of respect
for women?

Autrement dit, before embracing this

crusade one wants to know whether
there is a speci½c face to Mr. Bush’s
moral vision–for example, the face of
bourgeois liberal feminism, or the face
of American constitutionalism as inter-
preted by our current Supreme Court, ou
the face of middle-class Judeo-Christian
family life in the United States today.
Le plus important, since public policy
and proposals for nation building re-
quire that leaders make the move from
the abstract to the concrete, it seems rea-
sonable to wonder how it is possible to
enforce a universal vision of moral prog-
ress without imposing one’s own paro-

5 Voir, Par exemple, Usha Menon, “Neither Vic-
tim Nor Rebel: Feminism and the Morality of
Gender and Family Life in a Hindu Temple
Town,” in Richard A. Shweder, Martha Minow,
and Hazel Markus, éd., Engaging Cultural Dif-
ferences: The Multicultural Challenge in Liberal De-
mocracies (New York: Russell Sage Foundation
Presse, 2002).

chial conception of things on others.
Once the substance of Mr. Bush’s moral
vision is made transparent, all may not
be well and good, given the hazards of
ethnocentrism.

A skeptical response to missionary

moral progressivism does not entail re-
jecting the very idea of moral progress–
but it does require remaining alert to the
ways in which this idea may be abused
and dangerously misused. Moral prog-
ress means having more and more of
something that is ‘desirable,’ that is to
say, something that ought to be desired
because it is good. Moral decline means
having less and less of it. Ainsi, the tran-
scendental semantics of the concept are
pretty clear. At times the application of
the idea can be clear, aussi, especially if we
are able to agree on our description of a
speci½c good (par exemple., taking care of parents
in their old age, reducing the frequency
of contagious diseases, increasing per-
sonal freedom). We can then make ob-
jective judgments about moral progress
and decline, with respect to that good.
En effet, arguably there are non-negotia-
ble demands of human reason that apply
universally in international attempts to
understand and evaluate any particular
political tradition or cultural way of life.
Par exemple, the requirement that ‘in-
siders’ should be willing and able to jus-
tify themselves (to anyone who is willing
and able to listen in an open-minded
chemin) by pointing to one or more of the
recognizable goods served by their own
sociale, cultural, and political norms and
pratiques. Aussi, Par exemple, the require-
ment that ‘outsiders’ should be willing
and able to listen to others in an open-
minded sort of way–fully aware of the
hazards of provincialism, parochialism,
and ethnocentrism.

We can, bien sûr, go even further,
morally mapping the world. Ainsi, if in-
creasing the likelihood of child survival

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Richard A.
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sur
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during the ½rst nine months after birth
is the measure of moral progress, alors
Europe and the United States are objec-
tively more morally advanced than India
and Brazil. If increasing the likelihood
of child survival during the ½rst nine
months after conception is the measure
of moral progress, then Tunisia and
Mexico (where abortion rates are rela-
tively low) are objectively more morally
advanced than Eastern Europe and the
États-Unis (where abortion rates are
relatively high–50 percent in parts of
Eastern Europe and nearly 25 percent in
the United States when I last looked).
The result of this exercise depends en-
tirely on what we elect to include in our
list of moral goods.

One does not have to subscribe fully
to Richard Posner’s particular version of
moral subjectivism-relativism; seeming-
ly empty or tautological moral abstrac-
tion (such as “treat like cases alike and
different cases differently”) and ethical
truisms (such as “cruelty is wicked”)
may still be valuable in starting the
right type of conversations (about the
relevant, and irrelevant, ways particular
cases are alike or different; about which
deliberate inflictions of pain are arbi-
trary and unjusti½ed, and which not, et
why). Nor does one have to endorse (as I
do) Stuart Hampshire’s particular ver-
sion of rationally irreconcilable concep-
tions of a good society, to recognize that
there is much that is discretionary in any
decision about how to name and identify
speci½c goods and how to map the world
morally.6 For example, the sheer quanti-
ty of life, or reproductive ½tness, is the
measure used by evolutionary biologists
for estimating the success of a popula-
tion. By that standard, how are we to
evaluate the birth control pill, the legal-

6 For a more detailed evaluation of the philo-
sophical stances of Posner, Hampshire, et
Bush, a discussion of the hazards of ethnocen-
trism, and a defense of one version of moral

ization of abortion, and the reduction of
family size in the high-tech societies of
the ½rst world? Do we narrate a story of
cultural decline? The mapping of the
relative moral progress of nations, cul-
photos, or human societies can be as sub-
jective, hazardous, and polemical as it
is seductive and beguiling–which is
yet one more reason for the skeptic’s
response.

Nation building through bombing may

appear to be an ironic perversion of the
idea of promoting moral progress. Nev-
ertheless, there is really nothing new in
President Bush’s claim of a moral high
ground to justify the dropping of bombs.
Long before the invention of hell½re
missiles and ½ve-thousand-pound bun-
ker busters, missionary moral progres-
sives–some armed with a secular sense
of a great Northern European Enlighten-
ment, others armed with a religious
sense of a great Christian Awakening–
felt entitled to civilize and uplift non-
Western peoples; to assume military,
politique, and economic control over
their lands in order to liberate and en-
lighten them, if not save their souls.

These moral crusaders didn’t think of
themselves as invaders or intruders, mais
rather as architects of a more just social
order, as bearers of transcendent gifts,
bringing the blessings of education, de-
mocratie, and human rights to peoples
they pitied (or loathed) as backward,
primitive, or barbaric. Saving the chil-
les enfants, Par exemple, is what Australia’s
‘enlightened’ liberal Anglo-Saxon popu-
lation thought it was doing when it took
children away from their Aboriginal par-

realism (“moral universalism without the uni-
formity”), see Richard A. Shweder, “Moral
Realism without the Ethnocentrism: Is It Just a
List of Empty Truisms?” in András Sajó, éd.,
Human Rights with Modesty: The Problem of
Universalism (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Pub-
lishers, 2004).

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ents and placed them in mainstream
middle-class homes and missionary
schools.

Perhaps the most famous version of
missionary moral progressivism was the
nineteenth-century British understand-
ing of the ‘white man’s burden,’ which
obligated the Victorian generation to
protect the unfortunate residents of the
‘dark continents’ of the world, to rid the
populations of Africa and Asia of pover-
ty, savagery, tyranny, ignorance, and dis-
ease. In that era, the French and the Ger-
mans, like the British, believed their
wealth and power were divine signs of
their virtue. Like George Bush today,
they assumed that Western views were
“right and true and unchanging for all
people everywhere”–so universally
right and true that people everywhere
would soon enough acknowledge these
views as their own.

In the light of that history, Mr. Bush
should not be surprised by the ½erce re-
sistance his American missionaries now
face in Iraq–which is perhaps the latest
evidence that even the most impeccably
‘enlightened’ or liberal moral views
about political legitimacy, gender rela-
tion, and the speci½c character and ap-
plication of human rights are in fact not
universally regarded as right and true by
all people everywhere.

Until relatively recently, the president’s

views about America’s moral role in the
world had relatively broad support, et
spanned the political spectrum in the
États-Unis, producing some strange
bedfellows: Paul Wolfowitz and Hillary
Clinton, Donald Rumsfeld and Michael
Ignatieff, Thomas Friedman and Wil-
liam Sa½re. Nevertheless, not every
American was enthralled with the presi-
dent’s 2002 State of the Union address,
nor did every American feel a strong
sense of solidarity with the imperial al-
liance of neoconservatives and liberals

that eventually fostered the invasion of
Iraq.

Fifteen months after the president’s
speech, I watched a television broadcast
of an American flag being lifted by a ma-
rine over the Iraqi port town of Umn
Qasr. As I watched, I wondered whether
we were at risk of losing our way as a
people. En effet, throughout the occupa-
tion, the stream of images from Iraq
continues to feel disturbingly discordant
with our national identity. Something
seems terribly wrong with the picture
when it is our country that begins to
look like the Empire (rather than the
Federation) in the Star Wars trilogy.
Something seems to have gone terribly
wrong with human understanding (et,
bien sûr, with international diplomacy)
when grievances of the sort enumerated
in our own Declaration of Independence
(“Quartering large bodies of troops
among us,” “depriving us in many cases,
of the bene½ts of Trial by Jury,” “declar-
ing themselves vested with the power to
legislate for us”) are taken up for use as
accusations against the United States.
As the world has gone to pieces, tel
feelings and judgments are being more
frequently expressed. There was, et
increasingly there is, a notable divide in
reactions to the president’s use of Amer-
ican wealth and power to promote a
global conception of human progress.
But the divide is not between Left and
Droite, liberal and conservative, Dem-
ocrat and Republican. It hints at a ten-
sion of a different kind. The split is be-
tween those who embrace universaliz-
ing missionary efforts of either a reli-
gious (Christian, Islamic) or secular (hu-
man rights, international liberationist)
sort–and those who react to such mis-
sions with dif½dence, doubt, distrust,
indignation, and even fear.

When powerful, highly motivated,
well-intended, well-connected, and well-
½nanced public or private activists

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decide to launch global campaigns to
spread ‘the good news,’ enlighten the
ignorant, civilize the savages, or impose
some unitary conception of truth or of
the good life, there are still many people
in the world who think there is good rea-
son to get nervous–and to raise the
standard for critically evaluating the
conviction that there is only one God
and that we are acting with Him (or Her)
on our side.

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