ARTICLE

Communicated by Anne Steinemann

Diplomats’ Mystery Illness and Pulsed
Radiofrequency/Microwave Radiation

Beatrice Alexandra Golomb
bgolomb@ucsd.edu
UC San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A.

Importance: A mystery illness striking U.S. and Canadian diplomats to
Cuba (and now China) “has confounded the FBI, the State Department
and US intelligence agencies” (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017).
Sonic explanations for the so-called health attacks have long dominated
media reports, propelled by peculiar sounds heard and auditory symp-
toms experienced. Sonic mediation was justly rejected by experts. We
assessed whether pulsed radiofrequency/microwave radiation (RF/MW)
exposure can accommodate reported facts in diplomats, including un-
usual ones.

Observations: (1) Noises: Many diplomats heard chirping, ringing or
grinding noises at night during episodes reportedly triggering health
problems. Some reported that noises were localized with laser-like pre-
cision or said the sounds seemed to follow them (within the territory
in which they were perceived). Pulsed RF/MW engenders just these ap-
parent “sounds” via the Frey effect. Perceived “sounds” differ by head
dimensions and pulse characteristics and can be perceived as located be-
hind in or above the head. Ability to hear the “sounds” depends on high-
frequency hearing and low ambient noise. (2) Signs/symptoms: Hearing
loss and tinnitus are prominent in affected diplomats and in RF/MW-
affected individuals. Each of the protean symptoms that diplomats
report also affect persons reporting symptoms from RF/MW: sleep prob-
lems, headaches, and cognitive problems dominate in both groups. Sen-
sations of pressure or vibration figure in each. Both encompass vision,
balance, and speech problems and nosebleeds. Brain injury and brain
swelling are reported in both. (3) Mechanisms: Oxidative stress pro-
vides a documented mechanism of RF/MW injury compatible with re-
ported signs and symptoms; sequelae of endothelial dysfunction (yield-
ing blood flow compromise), membrane damage, blood-brain barrier
disruption, mitochondrial injury, apoptosis, and autoimmune triggering
afford downstream mechanisms, of varying persistence, that merit inves-
tigation. (4) Of note, microwaving of the U.S. embassy in Moscow is his-
torically documented.

Conclusions and relevance: Reported facts appear

consistent
with pulsed RF / MW as the source of injury in affected diplomats.

Neural Computation 30, 2882–2985 (2018)
doi:10.1162/neco_a_01133

© 2018 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Published under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license.

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Diplomats’ Mystery Illness

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Nondiplomats citing symptoms from RF/MW, often with an inciting
pulsed-RF/MW exposure, report compatible health conditions. Under
the RF/MW hypothesis, lessons learned for diplomats and for RF/MW-
affected civilians may each aid the other.

1 Introduction

More than two dozen American diplomats in Cuba (Lederman, 2018; Per-
lez & Myers, 2018) and their families (Lederman & Lee, 2017), plus a
smattering of Canadian diplomats in Cuba (Cochrane, 2017; Lederman,
Weissenstein, Lee, & Associated Press, 2017) and their families (Panetta,
2017), reportedly developed a “mystery” illness (Associated Press in Wash-
ington, 2017; Cochrane, 2017; “Cuba’s sonic attacks,” 2017; Associated
Press, 2017a) that “has confounded the FBI, the state department and US
intelligence agencies” (Associated Press in Washington, 2017), “baffling US
officials” (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017): “‘It’s just mystery after
mystery after mystery”’ (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). Problems
began in 2016, began to be widely reported in 2017, and as of January 2018,
“‘We are not much further ahead than we were in finding out why this oc-
curred,’ Undersecretary of State Steve Goldstein said” (Lederman, 2018).
Similar problems first were recognized in China in April 2018, and “a num-
ber of diplomats at the US consulate in Guangzhou, China, had been sent
home with similar symptoms” (Buckley & Harris, 2018; Harris, 2018a; Per-
lez & Myers, 2018; Stone, 2018)—by June’s end, “at least eight” from the
consulate in Guangzhou, and “at least 11” from China more broadly (My-
ers, 2018).

Media reports have long characterized these so-called health attacks (As-
sociated Press, 2017a, 2017b; Robles & Semple, 2017a, 2017b) as “sonic at-
tacks” (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Board, 2017; “Cuba’s sonic
attacks,” 2017; Gearan, 2017; Lederman, 2017a; Lederman, Weissenstein, &
Lee, 2017; Perlez & Myers, 2018; Associated Press, 2017c).

This characterization persisted despite rejection of sonic explanations by
experts (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Lederman, Weissenstein, &
Lee, 2017; Associated Press, 2017c; Zimmer, 2017a, 2017b), for example, “No
single, sonic gadget seems to explain such an odd, inconsistent array of
physical responses” (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). According to
psychoacoustics expert Joseph Pompei, “‘Brain damage and concussions,
it’s not possible.’ . . . ‘Somebody would have to submerge their head in
powerful ultrasound transducers”’ (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017).
Some suggested a viral hypothesis (Lederman, 2018), but this fails to ex-
plain many features of these cases, including the strange noises associated
with inciting events in some, and there is not a known viral illness with
a compatible profile of symptoms. Though “officials told senators the US
government knew of no weapon, sonic or otherwise, that could produce

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B. Golomb

the effects seen in the Cuba patients” (Lederman, 2018), to this date, some
media sources continue to reference sonic attacks (Perlez & Myers, 2018).

A different explanation is proposed that, it is suggested, better ac-
commodates the facts, including the “odd, inconsistent array of physical
responses” (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017) and other “mysteri-
ous” and protean features reported. Reported features are assessed for
compatibility to known effects of radiofrequency/microwave radiation
(RF/MW), particularly pulsed RF/MW. Symptoms and signs are assessed
against symptoms and signs reported by people who report health effects
from RF/MW exposure, a condition that has been termed “radiofrequency
sickness” (Johnson Liakouris, 1998), “microwave syndrome” (Navarro,
Segura, Portoles, & Gomez-Perretta, 2003), or to encompass people experi-
encing problems from exposures beyond a specific part of the electromag-
netic spectrum, “electromagnetic hypersensitivity” (Genuis & Lipp, 2012;
Hagstrom, Auranen, & Ekman, 2013; Hardell et al., 2008; Leitgeb, 1998;
McCarty et al., 2011), “electrosensitivity” (Woolston, 2010; www.es-uk.info;
www.esnztrust Electrosensitivity New Zealand) or “electrohypersensitiv-
ity” (Belpomme, Campagnac, & Irigaray, 2015; Carpenter, 2014; Heuser &
Heuser, 2017; Johansson, 2006, 2015; Redmayne & Johansson, 2014).

2 Methods

symptoms, and
Features of diplomats’ “health attacks”—origins,
findings—are delineated and examined in relation to evidence regarding
symptoms from RF/MW.

Features to be examined for compatibility with an RF/MW-explanation
include the following. Strange noises were heard by some diplomats dur-
ing apparent inciting episodes (Lederman, Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017;
Stone, 2018). The noises that were heard differed markedly for different
diplomats (Lederman, Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017). Descriptions included
high-pitched chirping similar to crickets or cicadas, ringing and grinding
(Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). The noises were heard primarily
at night (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). Other diplomats heard no
noises (Lederman, Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017) and were not aware of
any inciting episodes—just onset of symptoms. In some cases, noises were
confined to “parts of rooms with laser-like specificity” (Lederman, Weis-
senstein, & Lee, 2017). “Others in the immediate vicinity heard nothing”
(Golden & Rotella, 2018). Within the area in which a sound was perceived,
it seemed to follow the person around the room (Stone, 2018).

Auditory symptoms are a prominently reported and distinctive feature
(though not present in all) and include hearing loss (Associated Press,
2017b; Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Lederman, Weissenstein, &
Lee, 2017; Panetta, 2017; Robles & Semple, 2017a; Wilkinson, 2017) and
tinnitus (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Harris, 2018b; Lederman,

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Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017; Panetta, 2017), and, particularly during incit-
ing episodes in some, ear pain (Harris, 2018b; Lederman, 2018).

Other symptoms are protean and vary markedly from individual
to individual—“an odd,
inconsistent array of physical symptoms”—
Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017). Sleep symptoms (Associated Press,
2017a; Panetta, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018), headaches (Associated Press
in Washington, 2017; Harris, 2018b; Panetta, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018),
cognitive dysfunction (Harris, 2018b; Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee,
2017; Panetta, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018), fatigue (Harris, 2018b; Panetta,
2017), and dizziness (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Harris, 2018b;
Panetta, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018) are prominent among the “nonspecific”
symptoms. In some, problems were temporary and apparently recovered
with time away from the exposure (Associated Press in Washington, 2017);
others experienced persistent problems (Lederman & Lee, 2017; Lederman,
Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017).

Potentially objectively measurable problems with speech (Associated
Press in Washington, 2017; Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017), balance
(Associated Press, 2017a; Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Lederman,
Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018), and vision (Associated
Press, 2017a; Swanson et al., 2018), as well as epistaxis (nosebleed) (Asso-
ciated Press in Washington, 2017), are a feature in some. Peculiar sensory
symptoms of pressure and vibration are reported (Swanson et al., 2018).
Brain injury (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Harris, 2017a; Leder-
man & Lee, 2017; Lederman, Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017), white matter
abnormalities (Weissenstein, 2018), and brain swelling (Associated Press
in Washington, 2017; Lederman, Weissenstein, Lee et al., 2017) have been
reported.

To assess compatibility of symptoms in diplomats with those experienc-
ing symptoms from RF/MW, we focus on those who are symptomatic in
each group. “Only a minority of embassy staff were stricken” (Stone, 2018),
and it is these who have been reported on and studied. The minority who
are symptomatic from RF/MW exposures are the appropriate comparator.
Peer-reviewed publications are the primary source of information. How-
ever, the most authoritative source for information about symptoms and
experiences of individuals is affected individuals themselves, peer review
confers no benefit and has no power to adjudicate individuals’ reports. For
this reason, the peer-reviewed literature to address issues of science is com-
plemented by sources that have elicited and reported on symptoms and
experiences of diplomats, or of RF/MW affected individuals, extending to
encompass news reports, surveys, statements of affected individuals, or,
when applicable, other “gray literature.” For diplomats, news and other
media reports are complemented by a JAMA report focused on neurological
symptoms in diplomats (Swanson et al., 2018). Information that references
“news” rather than science also cites media sources.

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B. Golomb

Mechanisms by which RF/MW may cause reported problems are cur-
sorily addressed. Sources of RF/MW reported to affect the comparator
group, and potential RF/MW sources of diplomats’ symptoms, are briefly
reviewed.

3 Results

Table 1 reviews characteristics of noises reported by diplomats in incit-
ing episodes and compatibility with RF/MW. Pulsed RF/MW in the 2.4 to
10,000 MHz range produces perceived noises that resemble sounds “such as
a click, buzz, hiss, knock, or chirp,” just as diplomats report (Elder & Chou,
2003). Ability to hear RF/MW “sounds” is reported to depend on high fre-
quency hearing, and on low ambient noise (Elder & Chou, 2003) through a
phenomenon termed the Frey effect. (Synonyms include microwave auditory
effect, RF hearing, and variations of these.) This fits reports that noises were
not universally perceived. The requirement for low ambient noise accounts
for perception of “sounds” primarily at night (Lederman, Weissenstein, &
Lee, 2017). The primary pitch perceived reportedly relates to head dimen-
sions (Elder & Chou, 2003)—in addition to pulse waveform and other char-
acteristics (Lin, 1980)—accounting for different “sounds” perceived by dif-
ferent diplomats. Sounds were localized with “laserlike” specificity in some
cases, supposedly defying known physics (Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee,
2017). This may defy the physics of sound but not the physics of RF/MW:
lasers are electromagnetic radiation (EMR). One diplomat reported that the
sound seemed to follow him within the space in which it was heard (Stone,
2018). Frey sounds also follow the person, often perceived as slightly be-
hind the head, regardless of the body orientation relative to the source of
radiation (Bolen, 1988; Elder & Chou, 2003; Frey, 1961). Covering ears did
not lessen noise, consistent with RF/MR “sounds” (Tucker, 2018). Frey in-
duction is not governed by average radiation intensity but the energy in a
single pulse (Elder & Chou, 2003). (Analogously, if a jackhammer hit each 2
minutes, the low time-averaged pressure would not explain the damage.)

Table 2 reviews diplomats’ symptoms and signs, and compatibility of
these with RF/MW. Auditory symptoms, including tinnitus, hearing loss,
and ear pain or pressure, are prominent in diplomats (Swanson et al., 2018)
and in persons affected by RF/MW (Conrad & Friedman, 2013; Halteman,
2011; Kato & Johansson, 2012; Lamech, 2014). Symptoms are protean in
both groups. Prevalent among nonauditory nonspecific symptoms are sleep
problems, headaches, cognitive problems, and, to a lesser degree dizziness
and nausea (Associated Press in Washington, 2017; Conrad & Friedman,
2013; Halteman, 2011; Harris, 2018c; Kato & Johansson, 2012; Lamech, 2014;
Lederman, Weissenstein, & Lee, 2017; Swanson et al., 2018). Additional
more specific symptoms that are in principle objectively measurable include
problems with balance, speech, vision, and epistaxis (nosebleed) (Associ-
ated Press in Washington, 2017; Conrad & Friedman, 2013; Halteman, 2011;

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