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FORSCHUNGSBERICHT

Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative
Adversarial Imitation Learning

Tongtao Zhang1, Heng Ji1† & Avirup Sil2

1Computer Science Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180-3590, USA

2IBM Research AI, Armonk, New York 10504-1722, USA

Schlüsselwörter: Information extraction; Event extraction; Imitation learning; Generative adversarial network

Zitat: T. Zhang, H. Ji, & A. Sil. Joint entity and event extraction with generative adversarial imitation learning. Datenintelligenz

1(2019), 99-120. doi: 10.1162/dint_a_00014

Erhalten: Dezember 24, 2018; Überarbeitet: Februar 11, 2019; Akzeptiert: Februar 19, 2019

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ABSTRAKT

We propose a new framework for entity and event extraction based on generative adversarial imitation
learning—an inverse reinforcement learning method using a generative adversarial network (GAN). Wir
assume that instances and labels yield to various extents of difficulty and the gains and penalties (rewards)
are expected to be diverse. We utilize discriminators to estimate proper rewards according to the difference
between the labels committed by the ground-truth (expert) and the extractor (agent). Our experiments
demonstrate that the proposed framework outperforms state-of-the-art methods.

1. EINFÜHRUNG

Event extraction (EE) is a crucial information extraction (IE) task that focuses on extracting structured
Information (d.h., a structure of event trigger and arguments, “what is happening”, and “who or what is
involved”) from unstructured texts. Zum Beispiel, in the sentence “Masih’s alleged comments of blasphemy
are punishable by death under Pakistan Penal Code” shown in Figure 1, there is a Sentence event
(“punishable”), and an Execute event (“death”) involving the person entity “Masih”. Most event extraction
research has been in the context of the 2005 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Automatic
Content Extraction (ACE) sentence-level event mention task [1], which also provides the standard corpus.
The annotation guidelines of the ACE program define an event as a specific occurrence of something that
happens involving participants, often described as a change of state [2]. More recently, the NIST Text

† Corresponding author: Heng Ji (Email: jih@rpi.edu; ORCID: 0000-0002-7954-7994).

Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

Analysis Conference’s Knowledge Base Population (TAC-KBP) community has introduced document-level
event argument extraction shared tasks for 2014 Und 2015 (KBP EA).

In the last five years, many event extraction approaches have brought forth encouraging results by
retrieving additional related text documents [3], introducing rich features of multiple categories [4, 5],
incorporating relevant information within or beyond context [6, 7, 8, 9] and adopting neural network
frameworks [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].

Jedoch, there are still challenging cases: Zum Beispiel, in the following sentences: “Masih’s alleged
comments of blasphemy are punishable by death under Pakistan Penal Code” and “Scott is charged with
first-degree homicide for the death of an infant”, the word death can trigger an Execute event in the former
sentence and a Die event in the latter one. With similar local information (word embeddings) or contextual
Merkmale (both sentences include legal events), supervised models pursue the probability distribution which
resembles that in the training set (z.B., we have overwhelmingly more Die annotation on death than
Execute), and will label both as a Die event, causing an error in the former instance.

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Such a mistake is due to the lack of a mechanism that explicitly deals with wrong and confusing labels.
Many multi-classification approaches utilize cross-entropy loss, which aims at boosting the probability of
the correct labels, and usually treats wrong labels equally and merely inhibits them indirectly. Models are
trained to capture features and weights to pursue correct labels, but will become vulnerable and unable to
avoid mistakes when facing ambiguous instances, where the probabilities of the confusing and wrong labels
are not sufficiently “suppressed”. daher, exploring information from wrong labels is a key to make the
models robust.

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Figur 1. Our framework includes a reward estimator based on a generative adversarial network (GAN) to issue
dynamic rewards with regard to the labels (Aktionen) committed by event extractor (agent). The reward estimator is
trained upon the difference between the labels from ground truth (expert) and extractor (agent). If the extractor
repeatedly misses Execute label for “death”, the penalty (negative reward values) is strengthened; if the extractor
makes surprising mistakes: label “death” as Person or label Person “Masih” as Place role in Sentence event, Die
penalty is also strong. For cases where extractor is correct, simpler cases such as Sentence on “death” will take a
smaller gain while difﬁ cult cases Execute on “death” will be awarded with larger reward values.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

In diesem Papier, to combat the problems of previous approaches toward this task, we propose a dynamic
mechanism—inverse reinforcement learning—to directly assess correct and wrong labels on instances in
entity and event extraction. We assign explicit scores on cases—or rewards in terms of Reinforcement
Learning (RL). We adopt discriminators from a generative adversarial network (GAN) to estimate the reward
Werte. Discriminators ensure the highest reward for ground-truth (expert) and the extractor attempts to
imitate the expert by pursuing highest rewards. For challenging cases, if the extractor continues selecting
wrong labels, the GAN keeps expanding the margins between rewards for ground-truth labels and (wrong)
extractor labels and eventually deviates the extractor from wrong labels.

The main contributions of this paper can be summarized as follows:

•

We apply RL framework to event extraction tasks, and the proposed framework is an end-to-end and
pipelined approach that extracts entities and event triggers and determines the argument roles for
detected entities.
With inverse RL propelled by the GAN, we demonstrate that a dynamic reward function ensures more
optimal performance in a complicated RL task.

2. R ELATED WORK

One of the recent event extraction approaches mentioned in the introductory section [18] utilizes the
GAN in event extraction. The GAN in the cited work outputs generated features to regulate the event model
from features leading to errors, while our approach directly assesses the mistakes to explore levels
of difficulty in labels. Darüber hinaus, our approach also covers argument role labeling, while the cited paper
nicht.

RL-based methods have been recently applied to a few information extraction tasks such as relation
extraction, and both relation frameworks from [21, 22] apply RL on entity relation detection with a series
of predefined rewards.

We are aware that the term imitation learning is slightly different from inverse reinforcement learning.
Techniques of imitation learning [23, 24, 25] attempt to map the states to expert actions by following
demonstration, which resembles supervised learning, while inverse RL [26, 27, 28, 29, 30] estimates the
rewards first and applies the rewards to RL. [31] is an imitation learning application on bio-medical event
extraction, and there is no reward estimator used. We humbly recognize our work as inverse reinforcement
learning approach although “Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning” (GAIL) is named after imitation
learning.

3. T ASK AND TERM PRELIMINARIES

In this paper we follow the schema of Automatic Content Extraction (ACE) [1] to detect the following

elements from unstructured natural language data:

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

•

Entity: Word or phrase that describes a real world object such as a person (“Masih” as PER in
Figur 1). ACE schema defines seven types of entities.
Event trigger: The word that most clearly expresses an event (interaction or change of status). ACE
schema defines 33 types of events such as Sentence (“punishable” in Figure 1) and Execute (“death”).
Event argument: An entity that serves as a participant or attribute with a specific role in an event
mention, in Figure 1 z.B., a PER “Masih” serves as a Defendant in a Sentence event triggered by
“punishable”.

The ACE schema also comes with a data set—ACE2005—which has been used as a benchmark for

information extraction frameworks and we will introduce this data set in Section 6.

For broader readers who might not be familiar with RL, we briefly introduce their counterparts or
equivalent concepts in supervised models with the RL terms in the parentheses: our goal is to train an
extractor (agent A) to label entities, event triggers and argument roles (actions a) in text (environment e);
to commit correct labels, the extractor consumes features (state s) and follows the ground truth (expert E);
a reward R will be issued to the extractor according to whether it is different from the ground truth and
how serious the difference is—as shown in Figure 1, a repeated mistake is definitely more serious—and
the extractor improves the extraction model (policy π) by pursuing maximized rewards.

Our framework can be briefly described as follows: given a sentence, our extractor scans the sentence
and determines the boundaries and types of entities and event triggers using Q-Learning (Abschnitt 4.1);
meanwhile, the extractor determines the relations between triggers and entities—argument roles with policy
gradient (Abschnitt 4.2). During the training epochs, GANs estimate rewards which stimulate the extractor to
pursue the most optimal joint model (Abschnitt 5).

4. FRA MEWORK AND APPROACH

4.1 Q-L earning for Entities and Triggers

The entity and trigger detection is often modeled as a sequence labeling problem, where long-term

dependency is a core nature; and RL is a well-suited method [32].

From RL perspective, our extractor (agent A) is exploring the environment, or unstructured natural
language sentences when going through the sequences and committing labels (actions a) for the tokens.
When the extractor arrives at the tth token in the sentence, it observes information from the environment
and its previous action at–1 as its current state st; when the extractor commits a current action at and moves
to the next token, it has a new state st+1. The information from the environment is the token’s context
embedding vt, which is usually acquired from Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) [33]

https://catalog.ldc.upenn.edu/LDC2006T06

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

outputs; previous action at–1 may impose some constraint for current action at, z.B., I–ORG does not follow
B–PER. With the aforementioned notations, we have

To determine the current action at, we generate a series of Q-Tables with

S
T

v a −
=< , t t 1 > .

Q s a
(
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F
s s
) = ( |
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sl
T

,
1

S
T

−

…
,

A
T

,
1

A
T

−

…
,
),

(1)

(2)

where fsl(·) denotes a function that determines the Q-values using the current state as well as previous
states and actions. Then we achieve

ˆ
A
T

arg max
A
T

Q s a
(
T
T

(3)

Equations (2) Und (3) suggest that a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)-based framework which consumes
current input and previous inputs and outputs can be adopted, and we use a unidirectional LSTM as [34].
We have a full pipeline as illustrated in Figure 2.

For each label (action at) with regard to st, a reward rt = r(st, bei) is assigned to the extractor (agent). Wir
use Q-Learning to pursue the most optimal sequence labeling model (policy π) by maximizing the expected
value of the sum of future rewards E(Rt), where Rt represents the sum of discounted future rewards rt + crt+1
+ c2rt+2 +… with a discount factor c, which determines the influence between current and next states.

We utilize Bellman Equation to update the Q-value with regard to the current assigned label to approximate

an optimal model (policy π*):

*
Q s a
(
T

P
sl

) =

R
T

max
A
+
T
1

Q s
(
sl
T

,
1

A
T

).
1

(4)

As illustrated in Figure 3, when the extractor assigns a wrong label on the “death” token because the
Q-value of Die ranks first, Gleichung (4) will penalize the Q-value with regard to the wrong label; while in
later epochs, if the extractor commits a correct label of Execute, the Q-value will be boosted and make the
decision reinforced.

We minimize the loss in terms of mean squared error between the original and updated Q-values notated
Q s a
(
T
T

)
:

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L
sl

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(

−
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)
T

′
sl

(

))

(5)

and apply back propagation to optimize the parameters in the neural network.

 In this work, we use BIO, z.B., “B–Meet” indicates the token is beginning of Meet trigger, “I–ORG” means that the token is

inside an organization phrase, and “O” denotes null.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

Figur 2. A pipeline from input sentence to sequence labels mentioned in Section 4.1. Q-Table and values for
each current step is calculated using the unidirectional LSTM based on context embeddings of current and previous
tokens as well as Q-Tables and values from previous steps. Context embeddings are calculated using Bi-LSTM from
local token embeddings. Pre-trained embeddings based on Bi-LSTM such as ELMo [35] are also good candidates
for context embeddings.

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Figur 3. An illustrative example of updating the Q-values with Equation (4), with ﬁ xed rewards r = ±5 for correct/
wrong labels and discount factor l = 0.01. Score for a wrong label is penalized while correct one is reinforced.

4.2 Policy Gradient for Argu ment Roles

After the extractor determines the entities and triggers, it takes pairs of one trigger and one entity (Streit

candidate) to determine whether the latter serves a role in the event triggered by the former.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

In this task, for each pair of trigger and argument candidate, our extractor observes the context embeddings
of trigger and argument candidate—vttr and vtar, jeweils, as well as the output of another Bi-LSTM
consuming the sequence of context embeddings between trigger and argument candidates in the state; Die
state also includes a representation (one-hot vector) of the entity type of the argument candidate atar, Und
the event type of the trigger atar also determines the available argument role labels, z.B., an Attack event
never has Adjudicator arguments as Sentence events. With these notations we have:

S
, = < tr ar v , v t ar , a t tr , a t ar t tr f , >,
ss

(6)

where the footnote tr denotes the trigger, ar denotes argument candidate, and fss denotes the sub-sentence
Bi-LSTM for the context embeddings between trigger and argument.

We have another ranking table for argument roles:

Q s
(
tr ar
,

tr ar
,

A
tr ar
,

) =

F
tr ar
,

(

S
tr ar
,

(7)

where ftr,ar represents a mapping function whose output sizes are determined by the trigger event
type attr, z.B., Attack event has five labels—Attacker, Target, Instrument, Place and Not-a-role and the
mapping function for Attack event contains a fully-connected layer with output size of five.

And we determine the role with Equation (8):

ˆ
A
tr ar
,

= arg max
A
tr ar
,

Q s
(
tr ar
,

tr ar
,

A
tr ar
,

(8)

We assign a reward r(str,ar, atr,ar) to the extractor, and since there is one step in determining the argument

role label, the expected values of R = r(str,ar, atr,ar).

We utilize another RL algorithm—Policy Gradient [36] to pursue the most optimal argument role labeling

Leistung.

We have probability distribution of argument role labels that are from the softmax output of Q-values:

P a
(

S
|
tr ar
tr ar
,
,

) = softmax(

Q s
(
tr ar
,

tr ar
,

A
tr ar
,

)).

To update the parameters, we minimize loss function with Equation (10):

L
pg

−

log (

P a

S
|
tr ar
tr ar
,
,

(9)

(10)

From Equation (10) and Figure 4 we acknowledge that, when the extractor commits a correct label (Agent
for the GPE entity “Pakistan”), the reward encourages P(atr,ar|str,ar) to increase; and when the extractor is
wrong (z.B., Place for “Pakistan”), the reward will be negative, leading to a decreased P(atr,ar|str,ar).

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

Figur 4. The extractor combines context embeddings of the trigger and entity, as well as a one-hot vector that
represents entity type and Bi-LSTM output of sub-sentence between the trigger and argument. The column “trend”
denotes the changes of P(atr,ar|str,ar) after policy gradient optimization in Equation (10).

4.3 Choice of Algorithms

Here we have a brief clarification on different choices of RL algorithms in the two tasks.

In the sequence labeling task, we do not take policy gradient approach due to high variance of E(Rt),
d.h., the sum of future rewards Rt should be negative when the extractor chooses a wrong label, but an ill-
set reward and discount factor c assignment or estimation may give a positive Rt (often with a small value)
and still push up the probability of the wrong action, which is not desired. There are some variance
reduction approaches to constraining the Rt but they still need additional estimation and bad estimation
will introduce new risks. Q-Learning only requires rewards on current actions rt, which are relatively easy
to constrain.

In the argument role labeling task, determination on each trigger-entity pair consists of only one single
step and Rt is exactly the current reward r, and then policy gradient approach performs correctly if we
ensure negative rewards for wrong actions and positive for correct ones. Jedoch, this one-step property
impacts the Q-Learning approach: without new positive values from further steps, a small positive reward
on current correct labels may make the updated Q-value smaller than those wrong ones.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

5. GENERATIVE ADVERSARIAL IMITATION LEA RNING

So far in our paper, the reward values demonstrated in the examples are fixed, we have

⎧
C
1
⎨
C
⎩

when is correct,
ansonsten,

(11)

and typically we have c1 > c2.

This strategy makes the RL-based approach no difference from classification approaches with cross-
entropy in terms of “treating wrong labels equally” as discussed in the introductory section. Darüber hinaus,
recent RL approaches on relation extraction [21, 22] adopt a fixed setting of reward values with regard to
different phases of entity and relation detection based on empirical tuning, which requires additional tuning
work when switching to another data set or schema.

In event extraction task, entity, event and argument role labels yield to a complex structure with variant
difficulties. Errors should be evaluated case by case, and from epoch to epoch. In the earlier epochs, Wann
parameters in the neural networks are slightly optimized, all errors are tolerable, z.B., in sequence labeling,
extractor within the first two or three iterations usually labels most tokens with O labels. As the epoch
number increases, the extractor is expected to output more correct labels; Jedoch, if the extractor makes
repeated mistakes—e.g., the extractor persistently labels “death” as O in the example sentence “… Sind
punishable by death …” during multiple epochs—or is stuck in difficult cases—e.g., whether FAC (Einrichtung)
token “bridges” serves as a Place or Target role in an Attack event triggered by “bombed” in sentence “US
aircraft bombed Iraqi tanks holding bridges…”—a mechanism is required to assess these challenges and to
correct them with salient and dynamic rewards.

We describe the training approach as a process of extractor (agent A) imitating the ground-truth (expert
E), and during the process, a mechanism ensures that the highest reward values are issued to correct labels
(actions a), including the ones from both expert E and a:

[

(

s a
,

)

]

≥

[

(

)

]
.

s a
,

P
E

(12)

This mechanism is Inverse Reinforcement Learning [26], which estimates the reward first in an RL

Rahmen.

Gleichung (12) reveals a scenario of adversary between ground truth and extractor and GAIL [29], welche

is based on GAN [37], fits such adversarial nature.

In the original GAN, a generator generates (fake) data and attempts to confuse a discriminator D which
is trained to distinguish fake data from real data. In our proposed GAIL framework, the extractor (agent A)
substitutes the generator and commits labels to the discriminator D; the discriminator D, now serves as
reward estimator, aims to issue largest rewards to labels (Aktionen) from the ground-truth (expert E) oder
identical ones from the extractor but provides lower rewards for other/wrong labels.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

Rewards R(S,A) and the output of D are now equivalent and we ensure:

(

⎡
D
⎣

s a
,
E

)

⎤
⎦

≥

(

⎡
D
⎣

s a
,
A

)

⎤
⎦

(13)

where s, aE and aA are inputs of the discriminator. In the sequence labeling task, s consists of the context
embedding of current token vt and a one-hot vector that represents the previous action at–1 according to
Gleichung (1), and in the argument role labeling task, s comes from the representations of all elements
mentioned in Equation (6); aE is a one-hot vector of ground-truth label (expert, or “real data”) while aA
denotes the counterpart from the extractor (agent, or “generator”). The concatenated s and aE is the input
for “real data” channel while s and aA build the input for “generator” channel of the discriminator.

In our framework, due to the different dimensions in the two tasks and event types, we have 34
discriminators (one for sequence labeling, Und 33 for event argument role labeling with regard to 33 Ereignis
types). Every discriminator consists of two fully-connected layers with a sigmoid output. The original output
of D denotes a probability which is bounded in [0,1], and we use linear transformation to shift and expand
Es:

(

)

s a
,

= ∗
A

(

)

−

),
B

s a
,

(14)

z.B., in our experiments, we set a = 20 and b = 0.5 and make

R s a ∈ −
( ,
)

[ 10,10]
.

To pursue Equation (13), we minimize the loss function and optimize the parameters in the neural

Netzwerk:

(

= −

L
D

⎡
log
⎣

(

s a
,
E

)

⎤
⎦

⎡
log
⎣

(
1

−

(

s a
,
A

)

⎤
⎦

(15)

During the training process, after we feed the neural network mentioned in Section 4.1 Und 4.2 with a
mini-batch of the data, we collect the features (or states s), corresponding extractor labels (agent actions
aA) and ground-truth (expert actions aE) to update the discriminators according to Equation (15); then we
feed features and extractor labels into the discriminators to acquire reward values and train the extractor—
or the generator from the GAN’s perspective.

Since the discriminators are continuously optimized, if the extractor (generator) makes repeated mistakes
or makes surprising ones (z.B., considering a PER as a Place), the margin of rewards between correct and
wrong labels expands and outputs reward with larger absolute values. Somit, in sequence labeling task,
the updated Q-values are updated with a more discriminative difference, Und, similarly, in argument role
labeling task, the P(A|S) also increases or decreases more significantly with a larger absolute reward value.

Figur 5 illustrates how we utilize a GAN for reward estimation.

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Figur 5. An illustrative example of the GAN structure in sequence labeling scenario (argument role labeling
scenario has the identical frameworks except vector dimensions). As introduced in Section 5, the “real data” in the
original GAN is replaced by feature/state representation (Gleichung (1), or Equation (6) for argument role labeling
scenario) and ground-truth labels (expert actions) in our framework, while the “generator data” consists of features
and extractor’s attempt labels (agent actions). The discriminator serves as the reward estimator and a linear trans-
form is utilized to extend the D’s original output of probability range [0,1].

In case where discriminators are not sufficiently optimized (z.B., in early epochs) and may output

undesired values—e.g., negative for correct actions, we impose a hard margin:

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(cid:2)
(
R s a
,

)

(
⎧⎪
max 0.1,
= ⎨
(
−
⎪⎩
min 0.1,

)
R
s a
,
(
)
R s a
,

)

(

when is correct,
ansonsten

)

(16)

to ensure that correct actions will always take positive reward values and wrong ones take negative.

6. EXPLORA TION

In training phase, the extractor selects labels according to the rankings of Q-values in Equations (3) Und
(8) and GANs will issue rewards to update the Q-Tables and policy probabilities; and we also adopt
e-greedy strategy: we set a probability threshold
Vor
[0,1)
the extractor commits a label for an instance:

and uniformly sample a number

[0,1]

∈r

e ∈

(
a Q s a

⎧
arg max
= ⎨
Randomly pick up an action, if others
⎩

≥
r e

, Wenn

)

ˆ
A

With this strategy, the extractor is able to explore all possible labels (including correct and wrong ones),
and acquires rewards with regard to all labels to update the neural networks with richer information.

Darüber hinaus, after one step of e-greedy exploration, we also force the extractor to commit ground-truth
labels and issue it with expert (highest) rewards, and update the parameters accordingly. This additional
step is inspired by [38, 39], which combines cross-entropy loss from supervised models with RL loss
functions. Such combination can simultaneously and explicitly encourage correct labels and penalize
wrong labels and greatly improve the efficiency of pursuing optimal models.

 We do not directly adopt this because we treat cross-entropy loss as fixed rewards with r = 1 for correct label and r = 0 für

wrong label but we prioritize the dynamic rewards.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

7. EXPERIMENTS

7.1 Experiment S etup

To evaluate the performance with our proposed approach, we utilize ACE2005 documents. To align with
state-of-the-art frameworks such as [13, 16], we exclude informal documents from Conversational Telephone
Speech (cts) and UseNet (un), and the rest of the documents include newswire (nw), weblogs (wl), broadcast
news (bn) and broadcast conversations (v. Chr) crawled between 2003 Und 2005 and fully annonotated with
5,272 triggers and 9,612 arguments. To ensure fair comparison with the state-of-the-art methods, we follow
the splits of training (529 documents with 14,180 Sätze), validation (30 documents with 863 Sätze)
and test (40 documents with 672 Sätze) data and adopt the same criteria of the evaluation:

•

An entity (named entities and nominals) is correct if its entity type and offsets find a match in the
ground truth.
A trigger is correct if its event type and offsets find a match in the ground truth.

•
• An argument is correctly labeled if its event type, offsets and role find a match in the ground truth.
•
All the aforementioned elements are evaluated using precision (denoted as P in the tables, the ratio
of correct instances in the system result), recall (denoted as R in the tables, the ratio of correct system
results in the ground-truth annotation) and F1 scores (denoted as F1, harmonic average of the precision
and recall).

We use ELMo embeddings [35]. Because ELMo is delivered with built-in Bi-LSTMs, we treat ELMo
embedding as context embeddings in Figures 2 Und 4. We use GAIL-ELMo in the tables to denote the
setting.

Darüber hinaus, in order to disentangle the contribution from ELMo embeddings, we also present the
performance in a non-ELMo setting (denoted as GAIL-W2V) which utilizes the following embedding
techniques to represent tokens in the input sentence.

•

Token surface embeddings: For each unique token in the training set, we have a look-up dictionary
for embeddings which is randomly initialized and updated in the training phase.
Character-based embeddings: Each character also has a randomly initialized embedding, and will be
fed into a token-level Bi-LSTM network, and the final output of this network will enrich the information
of tokens.
POS embeddings: We apply Part-of-Speech (POS) tagging on the sentences using Stanford CoreNLP
tool [40]. The POS tags of the tokens also have a trainable look-up dictionary (embeddings).
Pre-trained embeddings: We also acquire embeddings trained from a large and publicly available
corpus. These embeddings preserve semantic information of the tokens and they are not updated in
the training phase.

 We use pretrained version at https://www.tensorflow.org/hub/modules/google/elmo/2.

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

We concatenate these embeddings and feed them into the Bi-LSTM networks as demonstrated in
Figuren 2 Und 4. To relieve over-fitting issues, we utilize dropout strategy on the input data during the
training phase. We intentionally set “UNK” (unknown) masks, which hold entries in the look-up dictionaries
of tokens, POS tags and characters. We randomly mask known tokens, POS tags and characters in the
training sentences with the “UNK” mask. We also set an all-0 vector on Word2Vec embeddings of randomly
selected tokens.

We tune the parameters according to the F1 score of argument role labeling. For Q-Learning, we set a
discount factor c = 0.01. For all RL tasks, we set exploration threshold e = 0.1. We set all hidden layer sizes
(including the ones on discriminators) and LSTM (for subsentence Bi-LSTM) cell memory sizes as 128. Der
dropout rate is 0.2. When optimizing the parameters in the neural networks, we use stochastic gradient
descent (SGD) with momentum and the learning rates start from 0.02 (sequence labeling), 0.005 (Streit
labeling) Und 0.001 (discriminators), and then the learning rate will decay every 5 epochs with exponential
von 0.9; all momentum values are set as 0.9.

For the non-ELMo setting, we set 100 dimensions for token embeddings, 20 for POS embeddings, Und
20 for character embeddings. For pre-trained embeddings, we train a 100-dimension Word2Vec [41] Modell
from English Wikipedia articles (Januar 1, 2017), with all tokens preserved and a context window of five
from both left and right.

We also implement an RL framework with fixed rewards of ±5 as baseline with identical parameters as
über. For sequence labeling (entity and event trigger detection task), we also set an additional reward
value of –50 for B–I errors, nämlich, an I–label does not follow B– label with the same tag name (z.B., I–GPE
follows B–PER). We use RL-W2V and RL-ELMo to denote these fixed-reward settings.

7.2 Results and Analysis

7.2.1 Entity Extraction Per formance

We compare the performance of entity extraction (including named entities and nominal mentions) mit

the following state-of-the-art and high-performing approaches:

•

•
•

JointIE [42]: A joint approach that extracts entities, Beziehungen, events and argument roles using structured
prediction with rich local and global linguistic features.
JointEntityEvent [6]: An approach that simultaneously extracts entities and arguments with document
Kontext.
Tree-LSTM [43]: A Tree-LSTM based approach that extracts entities and relations.
KBLSTM [8]: An LSTM-CRF (conditional random field) hybrid model that applies knowledge base
information on sequence labeling.

From Table 1 we can conclude that our proposed method outperforms the other approaches, especially
with an impressively high performance of recall. CRF-based models are applied on sequence labeling tasks

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Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning

because CRF can consider the label on previous token to avoid mistakes such as appending an I-GPE to a
B-PER, but it neglects the information from the later tokens. Our proposed approach avoids the
aforementioned mistakes by issuing strong penalties (negative reward with large absolute value); und das
Q-values in our sequence labeling sub-framework also considers rewards for the later tokens, welche
significantly enhances our prediction performance.

Tisch 1. Entity extraction performance.

JointIE
JointEntityEvent
Tree-LSTM
KBLSTM

RL-W2V
RL-ELMo
GAIL-W2V
GAIL-ELMo

85.2
83.5
82.9
85.4

82.0
83.1
85.4
85.8

76.9
80.2
83.9
86.0

86.1
87.0
88.6
89.7

80.8
81.8
83.4
85.7

84.0
85.0
86.9*
87.1*

Notiz: * means statistically signiﬁ cant (P < 0.05 with Wilcoxon signed rank test) against KBLSTM [8]. 7.2.2 Event Extraction Performance For event extraction performance with system-predicted entities as argument candidates, besides [42] and [6] we compare our performance with: • dbRNN [16]: an LSTM framework incorporating the dependency graph (dependency-bridge) information to detect event triggers and argument roles. Table 2 demonstrates that the performance of our proposed framework is better than state-of-the-art approaches except lower F1 score on argument identification against [16]. [16] utilizes Stanford CoreNLP to detect the noun phrases and take the detected phrases as argument candidates, while our argument candidates come from system predicted entities and some entities may be missed. However, [16]’s approach misses entity type information, which causes many errors in argument role labeling task, whereas our argument candidates hold entity types, and our final role labeling performance is better than [16]. Our framework is also flexible to consume ground-truth (gold) annotation of entities as argument candidates. And we demonstrate the performance comparison with the following state-of-the-art approaches on the same setting besides [16]: • • JointIE-GT [4]: similar to [42], the only difference is that this approach detects arguments based on ground-truth entities. JRNN [13], an RNN-based approach which integrates local lexical features. 112 Data Intelligence l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d . t i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning For this setting, we keep the identical parameters (including both trained and preset ones) and network structures which we use to report our performance in Tables 1 and 2, and we substitute system-predicted entity types and offsets with ground-truth counterparts. Table 3 demonstrates that, without any further deliberate tuning, our proposed approach can still provide better performance. Table 2. Performance comparison with state-of-the-art frameworks with system predicted entities. Tasks Metric JointIE JointEntityEvent dbRNN RL-W2V RL-ELMo GAIL-W2V GAIL-ELMo Trigger Identiﬁ cation Trigger Labeling Argument Identiﬁ cation Role Labeling P R F1 P R F1 P R F1 P R F1 - 77.6 - 73.9 74.1 76.5 76.8 - 65.4 - - 71.0 - 65.6 75.1 - 69.9 69.0 64.8 70.4 69.6 65.6 70.9 74.4 73.2 71.2 73.9 74.8 61.0 63.3 - 63.2 68.7 69.6 65.8 62.1 66.0 62.2 69.3 71.8 69.4 72.0 - 73.7 - 58.5 57.6 62.3 63.3 - 38.5 - 48.2 47.2 48.2 48.7 - 50.6 57.2 52.9 51.9 54.3 55.1 60.5 39.6 47.9 70.6 36.9 48.4 50.1 - - 53.4 44.7 48.6 54.2 43.7 48.4 61.7 44.8 51.9 61.6 45.7 52.4 Table 3. Comparison (F1) with state-of-the-art frameworks on ground-truth (gold) entity as argument candidates. Tasks JointIE-GT JRNN dbRNN RL-W2V RL-ELMo GAIL-W2V GAIL-ELMo TI 70.4 71.9 - 71.2 71.1 74.6 74.6 TL 67.5 69.3 71.9 69.7 69.5 72.7 72.9 AI 56.8 62.8 67.7 58.9 58.7 67.8 67.9 RL 52.7 55.4 58.7 54.8 54.6 59.1 59.7 Note: TI=Trigger Identiﬁ cation, TL=Trigger Labeling, AI=Argument Identiﬁ cation and RL=Role Labeling. 7.2.3 Merit of Dynamic Rewards The statistical results in Tables 1, 2 and 3 demonstrate that dynamic rewards outperform the settings with fixed rewards. As presented in Section 5, fixed reward setting resembles classification methods with cross- entropy loss, which treat errors equally and do not incorporate much information from errors, and hence the performance is similar to some earlier approaches but does not outperform state-of-the-art. Data Intelligence 113 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d . t i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning For the instances with ambiguity, our dynamic reward function can provide more salient margins between correct and wrong labels. With the identical parameter set as aforementioned, reward for the wrong Die label is as lower as –8.27 while correct Execute label gains as high as 9.35. Figure 6 illustrates the curves of rewards with regard to epoch numbers. For easier instances, e.g., the trigger word “arrested” in “... police have arrested ...” have flatter reward values as 1.24 for Arrest-Jail, –1.53 for None or –1.37 for Attack, which are sufficient for correct labels. l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . Figure 6. Change of rewards with regard to event type labels on the trigger “death” mentioned in Figure 1. t / l a r t i c e - p d f / e d u d n / i / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d . t i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 7.2.4 Impact from Pretrained Embeddings Scores in Tables 1, 2 and 3 prove that non-ELMo settings already outperform state-of-the-art, which confirms the advantage and contribution of our GAIL framework. Moreover, in spite of insignificant drop in fixed reward setting, we agree that ELMo is a good replacement for a combination of word, character and POS embeddings. The only shortcoming according to our empirical practice is that ELMo takes huge amount of GPU memory and the training procedure is slow (even we do not update the pre-trained parameters during our training phase). 7.3 Remain ing Errors Losses of scores are mainly missed trigger words and arguments. For instance, the End-Position trigger “sack” is missed because it is considered informal to use the word to express an End-Position event, and there are no similar tokens in the training data or in pre-trained embeddings. Another example of error is due to informal expression, e.g., “I miss him to death”, where the “death” does not trigger any event, while our system makes a mistake by detecting it as a Die event. Since most training sentences are formal writing, expression from oral speeches which are usually informal may cause errors. We also notice that there are some special errors which are caused by biased annotation. In the sentence “Bush invites his ‘good friend’ Putin to his weekend ‘retreat’ outside Camp David in Washington in September”, the FAC (facility) entity “retreat” is mistakenly labeled as a trigger word of Transport. In the training data, all the “retreat” tokens (or “retreated”, “retreating”, “retreats” are labeled as Transport; 114 Data Intelligence Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning however, this “retreat” means a facility which is “a quiet or secluded place for relaxation”. We also notice that the reward value for FAC (correct label) is –2.73 and Transport (wrong label) 3.13, which contradicts the expectation that correct label comes with higher reward value. This error implies that our approach still requires a mixture of all possible labels so that it is able to acknowledge and explore the ambiguous and possible actions. 8. CONCLUSI ONS AND FUTURE WORK In this paper, we propose an end-to-end entity and event extraction framework based on inverse reinforcement learning. Experiments have demonstrated that the performance benefits from dynamic reward values estimated from discriminators in a GAN, and we also demonstrate the performance of recent embedding work in the experiments. In the future, besides releasing the source code, we also will attempt to interpret the dynamics of these rewards with regard to the instances so that researchers and event extraction system developers are able to better understand and explore the algorithm and remaining challenges. Our future work also includes using cutting edge approaches such as BERT [44], and exploring joint model in order to alleviate impact from upstream errors in current pipelined framework. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the US Air Force No. FA8650-17-C-7715, DARPA AIDA Program No. FA8750-18-2-0014, and US ARL NS-CTA No. W911NF-09-2-0053. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the US Government. The US Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation here on. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS T. Zhang (zhangt13@rpi.edu) contributed to the design and implementation of the research. All authors, T. Zhang, H. Ji (jih@rpi.edu, corresponding author) and Avirup Sil (avi@us.ibm.com), contributed to the analysis of the results and to the writing of the manuscript. REFERENCES [1] C. Walker, S. Strassel, J. Medero, & K. Maeda. ACE 2005 multilingual training corpus. Philadelphia: Linguistic [2] Data Consortium, 2006. isbn: 1-58563-376-3. Linguistic Data Consortium. ACE (Automatic Content Extraction) English Annotation Guidelines for events. Available at: https://www.ldc.upenn.edu/sites/www.ldc.upenn.edu/files/english-events-guidelines-v5.4.3.pdf. [3] Z. Song, A. Bies, S. Strassel, T. Riese, J. Mott, J. Ellis, J. Wright, S. Kulick, N. Ryant, & X. Ma. From light to rich ERE: Annotation of entities, relations, and events. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on EVENTS: Definition, Detection, Coreference, and Representation, ACL, 2015, pp. 89–98. doi: 10.3115/v1/W15-0812. Data Intelligence 115 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d t . i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning [4] Q. Li, H. Ji, & L. Huang. Joint event extraction via structured prediction with global features. In: Proceedings of 2013 Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, ACL, 2013, pp. 73–82. 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Bert: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv preprint. arXiv:1810.04805, 2018. 118 Data Intelligence l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d . t i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY Tongtao Zhang is a PhD candidate in the Computer Science Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and a member of BLENDER. He focuses on event extraction with multi-modal approaches, which encompass across domains such as natural language processing, computer vision and machine learning. He is attempting to fuse the techniques from these domains to pursue a more comprehensive knowledge base. Tongtao received MS degree from Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, BS degree from Department of Applied Physics, Donghua University with “City’s Graduate of Excellence” and BA from Department of German, Shanghai International Studies University. Heng Ji is Edward P. Hamilton Development Chair Professor in Computer Science Department of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She received her BA and MA in Computational Linguistics from Tsinghua University and her MS and PhD in Computer Science from New York University. Her research interests focus on natural language processing and its connections with data mining, Social Sciences and vision. She was selected as “Young Scientist” and a member of the Global Future Council on the Future of Computing by the World Economic Forum in 2016 and 2017. She received “AI’s 10 to Watch” Award by IEEE Intelligent Systems in 2013, NSF CAREER award in 2009, Google Research Awards in 2009 and 2014, Sloan Junior Faculty Award in 2012, IBM Watson Faculty Award in 2012 and 2014, Bosch Research Awards in 2015, 2016 and 2017, PACLIC2012 Best Paper Runner-up, “Best of SDM2013” paper, and “Best of ICDM2013” paper. She is invited by the Secretary of the Air Force and AFRL to join Air Force Data Analytics Expert Panel to inform the Air Force Strategy 2030. She is the task leader of the US ARL projects on information fusion and knowledge networks construction. She led the Tinker Bell team that consists of seven universities under DARPA DEFT program. She coordinated the NIST TAC Knowledge Base Population task since 2010, served as the Program Committee Chair of NAACL2018, NLP-NABD2018, NLPCC2015 and CSCKG2016, ACL2017 Demo Co-Chair, the Information Extraction area chair for NAACL2012, ACL2013, EMNLP2013, NLPCC2014, EMNLP2015, NAACL2016, ACL2016 and NAACL2019, senior information extraction area chair of ACL2019, the vice Program Committee Chair for IEEE/WIC/ACM WI2013 and CCL2015, Content Analysis Track Chair of WWW2015, and the Financial Chair of IJCAI2016. Data Intelligence 119 l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d t . i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 Joint Entity and Event Extraction with Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning Dr. Avirup Sil is a Research Scientist in the Information Extraction and natural language processing (NLP) group at IBM Research AI. He is also the Chair of the NLP professional community of IBM. Currently, he is working on industry scale NLP and deep learning algorithms. His work is mainly on information extraction: entity recognition and linking and relation extraction. Currently, he is working on Question Answering algorithms by attaching world knowledge to systems. He is a senior program committee member for major Computational Linguistics conferences including being an Area Chair multiple times. Avirup finished his PhD in Computer Science under the supervision of his thesis advisor Alexander Yates. He also worked on temporal information extraction in the Machine Learning Group at Microsoft Research, Redmond, managed by Chris Burges and John Platt. His mentor was Silviu Cucerzan. He has more than 12 US patents filed all in the area of artificial intelligence and its applications in various spheres. l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / d i r e c t . m i t . e d u d n / i t / l a r t i c e - p d f / / / / / 1 2 9 9 1 4 7 6 7 0 6 d n _ a _ 0 0 0 1 4 p d . t i f b y g u e s t t o n 0 8 S e p e m b e r 2 0 2 3 120 Data Intelligence Bild FORSCHUNGSPAPIER

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