A Room with A LAndscApe:
Vedute from the Palace of the
Privileged Company of Trieste
and Rijeka
Fokus Grupa
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Vedute Salon
by Egon Hreljanovi´c,
circa 1988.
Courtesy of
the Museum
of the City of Rijeka.
© 2021 ARTMargins and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
https://doi.org/10.1162/artm_a_00287
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77
Fokus Grupa | a room with a Landscape
A building under reconstruction,
located across from the Rijeka main
train station, was expected to open its
doors in 2020 as the headquarters of
the Museum of the City of Rijeka.1 It
was built as the administrative seat of
the Trieste-Rijeka Privileged Company,
which had the monopoly over indus-
trial sugar processing and trade in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. The company
was established in 1750 at the initiative
of the Habsburg crown, and it was run
by Dutch merchants.
Rijeka, a port town on the East
Adriatic coast, has been part of different
empires over the course of modernity.
Here we are looking at the end of the
18th century, the time of Rijeka’s rapid
industrial development and its cosmo-
politan immersion into global trade as
part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The starting point for this reflection,
and our chosen case study, is several
late-18th-century landscape paintings
housed in one of the rooms of the
aforementioned building, cual estafa-
tain a rarity for this region—references
to slave labor and colonialism.
The Development of
Sugar Refinement in Rijeka
In the first half of the 18th century, a
series of events enabled the rapid capi-
talist development of Rijeka. As part of
his mercantile policy in 1717, Charles VI
proclaimed the Adriatic Sea open to
shipping and, en 1719, declared Rijeka
and Trieste free ports under the direct
auspices of the capital, Viena. El
same year, the first Oriental Company,
which preceded the Privileged Com-
pany of Trieste and Rijeka, opened in
Viena, and in 1722 a lazaretto for the
boats coming from “risky” ports was
built in Rijeka.2 After being established
en 1750, the Privileged Company of
Trieste and Rijeka had a long-lasting
monopoly on sugar production and
was in charge of many other produc-
tion and mercantile activities. It was run
by Proli & arnold, an Antwerp-based
Dutch company that was then part
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its
shareholders were Dutch, Flemish, y
Austro-Hungarian nobility, among them
the Empress Maria Theresa.3
Room with Landscapes
On the second floor of the late-Baroque
classicist palace (the headquarters of
the sugar refinery), in the Vedute Salon,
Company’s building
on the Rijeka map—
1843 (detail).
Courtesy of the State
Archives in Rijeka.
there are four large
and eight smaller
wall paintings. Estos
wall paintings, called
Vedute ideate, (el
1. The building is being ren-
ovated in the framework
of the European Capital
of Culture, Rijeka 2020.
The last circulated open-
ing date was in Septem-
ber, but this is uncertain
now because of the
COVID-19 epidemic. Mientras
all programming events
of the ECOC are on hold,
the infrastructure con-
struction is still ongoing.
The restoration of the
paintings has been on
hold.
2. Igor Žic, “Rafinerija šećera
u Rijeci (1750–1828),"
Sušačka revija, No. 24
(1998): 31. Emphasis
added.
3. Irvin Lukežić, “Nizozemci
u Rijeci,” Sušačka revija,
No. 41 (2003): 82, tomado
from Rudolf Bićanić, Doba
manufakture u Hrvatskoj i
Slavoniji: (1750–1860)
(Zagreb: Izdavački zavod
Jugoslavenske akademije
znanosti i umjetnosti,
1951), 237.
78
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artmargins 10:1
is addressing a well-dressed couple
passing by. On the north wall of the
Salon, in the image on the right, a man
with a conical sage hat carrying a load
looks like a worker from the Far East.
In the painting on the left, a group of
schematic fi gures depicted as Chinese,6
with bound hands, bare feet, and bent
backs, are moving around under the
surveillance of armed gendarmes. Intro-
duced as just another genre scene, este
painting nonchalantly exposes slavery
as part of the economic development
of the mercantilist city space. Not even
a detailed study conducted between
2003 y 2007, made in preparation for
the restoration of the building, hecho
the origin of these paintings clearer.
According to Ervin Dubrović, the direc-
tor of the Museum of the City of Rijeka,
they are made al secco on the dried
plaster, and their artists could have
been Venetians affi liated with Piranesi
and Canaletto. Some of the panoramas
may have been based on templates
from an unknown graphic.7
The Vedute ideate are rare depic-
tions of the racialized slave labor that was
barely visible in the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, at the edge of colonial Europe,
far away from the main colonial super-
powers. Austria-Hungary did not have
its own colonies in the 18th century.
Raw sugar was acquired from London,
Venice, and Marseilles, where it had
been imported from the Caribbean
rather than the Far East.8 But the paint-
ings contain evidence that links the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, together
Sugar Refi nery,
second-fl oor plan,
prepress Anka Ćurić.
Courtesy of Croatian
Conservation Institute.
last dated to 1789),4
were made after the
great fi re of 1785,
during the mandate
of the Privileged
Company of Trieste and Rijeka’s direc-
tor Peter de Vierendeels (1777–1803).
The paintings, refl ecting the taste and
the ambitions of their client, feature
imaginary, idealized cities with sce-
nographic public squares fi lled with
monuments and buildings that testify
to the company’s global reach. Alguno
paintings show in the background
maritime landscapes with sailing
ships displaying Austrian fl ags. En el
genre scenes, fi lled with characters
dressed according to the 18th-century
European fashion,5 merchants are
engaged in heated debates, couples
are strolling, and individual characters
walk, fi sh, or smoke. Some fi gures
look like military personnel carrying
armas, others like members of the
clero. Some merchants depicted with
turbans presumably portray people
from the Middle East. People in plain
clothes look like street vendors or
workers. There are children scattered
alrededor, engaged in play. A beggar
5. Mayerand and Puhmajer,
Palace of the Sugar Refi n-
ery in Rijeka, 109.
4. Krasanka Mayerand and
Petar Puhmajer, The Pal-
ace of the Sugar Refi nery
in Rijeka (Rijeka: City of
Rijeka in Cooperation
with the Croatian Conser-
vation Institute, 2008), 38.
6. Doba modernizacije
más, Rijeka, Srednja
Europa, ed. Ervin
Dubrović (Rijeka: Muzej
Grada Rijeke, 2006), 53.
7. Ibídem., 51.
8. Iukežić, “Nizozemci
u Rijeci,” S2.
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79
with the peripheral port town of Rijeka,
to the global flow of capital and the
history of colonialism. If a blind eye is
cast on the fact that the refinery was
producing sugar—a form of exquisite
colonial merchandise linked directly to
the history of transatlantic slavery and
African slaves—it is indisputable that
during the 18th century the Austro-
Hungarian Empire opened several com-
panies trading with the Far East,9 mientras
in the Austrian Netherlands the private
Ostend Company10 was trading with
both the Far East and the West Indies.
Slave Labor Depicted
The representation of slaves in the
paintings is acknowledged in some of
the literature on the palace, pero hay
no critical account of the link between
slavery and Rijeka’s industrial expan-
sión. There is a casual account of the
presence of slaves in the captions for
the painting in the Doba modernizacije:
The monument and the great
triumphal arch in the fore-
ground allow glimpses of a for-
est of masts and fortresses and
steep hills in the background.
The attention is caught by the
images of soldiers with guns and
handcuffed slaves—obviously
Chino. Beyond the “internation-
alist” and exotic atmosphere of
the painting, which reminds us
of the Far Eastern colonies that
regularly supply the Old World,
the idyllic scenes of decorative
borders also recall the fashion
of chinoiserie, of the taste of the
18th century that fancied Far
Eastern motifs. En efecto, the Com-
pany did not directly communi-
cate with the Far East, but it had
branches in both Americas.11
There is an unsettling account of
the use of slave labor as rational (no
concerning the paintings themselves)
in the article written by William Klinger
in the same book:
The harvesting and processing
of sugar cane must be carefully
planned and meticulously con-
ducted because any delay can
destroy several years of effort.
El sistema, por lo tanto, does not
allow for variability and inconsis-
tency in labor and energy supply.
The production and harvesting
of sugar cane depend on the
discipline and coordination of
the harvesters and are, por lo tanto,
more fitting to a slave-based
economy than to a free labor
force.12
In the book The Palace of the
Sugar Refinery in Rijeka, there is no
mention of slaves in the paintings or
of the slave-based economy of sugar
producción:
Above the marble-imitating
parapet, there are views of imagi-
9. https://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Imperial_Privileged
_Oriental_Company,
https://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Austrian_East
_India_Company,
accessed on December
22, 2019.
10. https://en.wikipedia
.org/wiki/Ostend
_Company, accessed on
December 22, 2019.
11. Doba modernizacije
Más, Rijeka, Srednja
Europa, 53.
12. Tilliam Klinger, “Povijest
šećera” in Dubrović,
Doba modernizacije, 24.
Translated by Fokus
Grupa.
80
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artmargins 10:1
nary cities with antique monu-
mentos, squares, buques, ruins, y
people dressed in 18th-century
clothes.13
Race and Class
The Vedute ideate are not showing
black African slave labor, which was
the basis for the global sugar trade
and the prosperity of the Rijeka sugar
industria. The slaves in the images are
from Eastern Asia, and their enslave-
ment is not the subject matter of the
images. As we mentioned earlier, allá
are sparse accounts of the depiction
of slaves in images such as these.
What we find symptomatic of the
(nonexistent) discourse about race
in the ex-Yugoslav region is the fact
that the East Asian slaves’ presence
seems unworthy of analysis in the local
accounts. Catherine Baker analyzes
this racial blindness in her book Race
and the Yugoslav Region (2018), one of
the first studies on the issue, en el cual
she looks at the peculiar racial constel-
lations in the territories of ex-Yugoslavia
that are themselves racialized as the
European other.14
In most of the accounts of the
history of the refinery, a clear analogy
is drawn between the types of work
performed (or class), Por un lado,
and the workers’ ethnicity, en el otro.
En general, while omitting slave labor,
these accounts do show that the closer
the workers were to home, the lower
was their position in the company.
Foreign workers from the Neth-
erlands and Hamburg worked
in the most expert and best-
paid positions in the refinery. En
order to attract them to Rijeka
and Croatia, they were offered
salaries twice as high as in their
countries of origin. En 1768, el
company employed 704 workers
and employees, 49 of whom were
foreigners (from the Netherlands,
Hamburg, Francia), 316 were from
Austrian countries (Istria, Kranj,
Primorje, Austria), y 339 eran
paesani, es decir. locals. In the refinery
sí mismo, a total of six masters were
empleado, all of them foreigners.
Following them in the labor qual-
ification came raffineurs (expert
skilled workers), 34 of whom were
foreigners, mientras 18 were Croats.
The refinery pottery workshop
employed artisans from Croatia,
and the boiler room employed
artisans from Prussia. Low-skilled
workers were mainly Croats.
Wage workers and cabmen were
also mostly local people, Croats,
Slovenians (from Kranj and Ko-
ruska). It is rather symptomatic
that all company directors were
generally from Antwerp/Anvers
in Belgium.15
Some of the accounts make a
poignant critique of class relations
whereby the local southeastern Euro-
peans were treated as a lower class.16
Many of the contemporary accounts,
13. Mayerand and
Puhmajer, Palace of
the Sugar Refinery in
Rijeka, 109.
14. Catherine Baker, Carrera
and the Yugoslav
Region: Postsocialist,
Post-conflict, Postcolo-
nial? (Manchester: Man-
chester University Press,
2018).
15. Rićanić, Doba manufak-
tura, 321. Quoted in
Iukežić, “Nizozemci u
Rijeci," 52. Los datos
accounts for the year
1768, the time before
the paintings were
hecho.
16. Mijo Mirković, Eko-
nomska historija
Jugoslavije (Rijeka:
Rentro di ricerche sto-
rische, 1985), 308–32,
and Rićanić, Doba man-
ufakture, 321.
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81
Fokus Grupa | a room with a Landscape
“European” mode of represen-
tation far beyond the largest
metropoles into smaller north-
ern European countries like
Switzerland and Iceland. Inner
Austria, en efecto, is already within
the scope of studies of German
advertising, race and empire,
since Austrian firms manufac-
tured and designed for both
German and Habsburg markets
within a cross-border consumer
culture.19
This might account for the pres-
ence of slave labor in the Vedute ideate,
but in Rijeka there was also an earlier
contact with the racialized other. En
a rereading of Gilroy’s Black Atlantic,
Baker coins the term “Black Adriatic,"
taking us back to the Mediterranean
trade routes (at least from the time
of the Ottoman
Empire) that made
this contact possible.
A witness to this
other contact zone
is the very popular
blackface figure of
Courtesy of the
Maritime and History
Museum of the
Croatian Littoral.
Company’s palace
on a watercolor by
Christian von Maÿr,
1832.
por otro lado, show a petty bour-
geois admiration for the industrialists,17
pronounce eulogies to the introduction
of Protestant ethics,18 and praise the
rapid development of this backwater
part of the world. Al mismo tiempo,
they express resentment about class
divisions that cut across ethnic lines.
But neither the Marxist nor the petty-
bourgeois critique accounts for the
absence of representation of the slave
labor that was the invisible basis for this
industrial growth.
Colonial Imaginaries
The racialized other was present in the
European territory of the big colonial
powers and in their large overseas ter-
ritories, but racism also spread through
cultural forms and commodities to
less central players in the colonization
proyecto, such as the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. With the slight lag that is a
characteristic of the periphery, the colo-
nial imaginary was introduced into the
Austro-Hungarian Empire (Rijeka itself
being on the periphery of that empire)
through what Anne McClintock calls
“commodity racism.” Catherine Baker
defines the concept of commodity rac-
ism in this way:
[t]he mass production of racial-
ized narratives/visualizations
of modernity and primitivism
around commodities extracted
from colonized land, permeated
as a transnational, implicitly
17. Lukežić, “Nizozemci u
Rijeci.”
18. Irvin Lukežić, “Riječka
kapitalistička oaza,"
Sušačka revija (2010),
hww.klubsusacana
.hr/revija/clanak
.asp?Num=72&C=19.
19. Panadero, Race and the
Yugoslav Region, 98.
82
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artmargins 10:1
were meant to be turned into a cultural
quarter. En nuestra opinión, the Vedute ideate,
which will be displayed to the public
when the Museum of the City of Rijeka
opens its doors in the new location,
circuitously points to the history of
colonialism as a constituent part of Rije-
ka’s industrialization and development,
while they highlight Europe’s industrial
heritage as also a colonial heritage.
As Chiara De Cesari writes in
“Museums of Europe: Tangles of Mem-
ory, Borders, and Race,” European
memory politics, which is built around
the memory of the Holocaust and has
recently incorporated the revision-
ist concept of totalitarianism, has not
acknowledged colonial guilt.22 The
material and nonmaterial traces of
colonization traditionally framed as
a national and today as a European
heritage, together with the colonial
mentality, are to different degrees pres-
ent both in locations that were central
to colonial empires and in the peripher-
es, including present-day Croatia. En
Rijeka, a rare depiction of what seems
to be slave trade in the Vedute ideate
paintings reminds us of the fact that the
development of urban centers in the
European peripheries is in fact linked to
the history of colonialism.
the morčić 20 that has been used on
jewelry and carnival masks, a tradition
imported to Rijeka and its surroundings
from Venice, where it continues to exist
unchallenged, as far as we know.
A Memorial to
Colonial Extractivism
The distant landscapes painted on the
walls of the Vedute Salon could not
have surpassed the idyllic view that
would open through the three windows
facing the sea. Before the reclamation
of the soil and the construction of the
railroad and the port in front of the
palace, the Vedute Salon overlooked
the beautiful Kvarner Bay with a view
toward the islands of Krk and Cres, el
Velebit mountain to the east, y el
Učka mountain to the west. A small
pier just in front of the palace’s main
entrance, with the crane to unload
cargo depicted in contemporary
accounts of the palace, is testimony
to the fact that the primary means of
transporting goods in the 18th century
was by sea. Today the Palace overlooks
the main train station, the dilapidated
cul de sac of the once-principal inland
transportation route connecting
Rijeka to Vienna and Budapest. En el
framework of the “European Capital of
Cultura, Rijeka 2020—Port of Diversity”
proyecto, and with the help of European
Union funds for industrial heritage res-
toration, several of the extant buildings
of the former sugar refinery,21 entre
them the Palace of the Sugar Refinery,
20. Tourist Office of the
City of Rijeka, hww
.visitrijeka.eu/All
_about_Rijeka/Tales
_from_Rijeka/Morcic,
accessed March 31, 2020,
states that “Morčić” is
the original jewelry from
Rijeka, Kvarner, y el
Croatian Littoral.
“Earrings with the bust
of a black man with tur-
ban are worn even
today by 70% of women
from the region, regard-
less of their social status
and national identity, en
a multi-ethnic Rijeka
that has as many as 22
ethnic minorities.”
21. The Museum of Mod-
ern and Contemporary
Art moved to a build-
ing connected to the
palace in 2017, y
the Public Library, un
Art Cinema, and a mul-
tipurpose Children’s
House will all be
housed in the vicinity
of the former palace
of the Privileged
Company of Trieste
and Rijeka after the
renovation is complete.
22. Chiara De Cesari, “Muse-
ums of Europe: Tangles
of Memory, Borders, y
Carrera,” Museum Anthro-
pology 40, No. 1 (2017):
19–37, https://pure.uva
.nl/ws/files/42051859
/muan.12128.pdf.
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83
Fokus Grupa | a room with a Landscape
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A Room with a Landscape: Vedute from the Palace of the
Privileged Company of Trieste and Rijeka
— Fokus Grupa
Vedute Salon photographs
— Ivan Vranjić
Thanks to
— Ivana Golob Mihić, Ivana Lucić, Toni Šaina, Slaven Tolj,
What How and for Whom, City of Rijeka, Croatian Conservation
92
artmargins 10:1
