Revolution in Higher Education: - IA de Investigación especializada en el MIT

Revolution in Higher Education:
Identity & Cultural Beliefs Inspire
Tribal Colleges & Universities

Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory

Abstracto: The public increasingly requires that higher education institutions demonstrate their return on
investment by measuring graduation rates, cost per student, job placement rates, and income. The mo-
tivation is economic: public institutions are accountable to the investor, en este caso, the taxpayer. Tribal
Colleges and Universities (TCUs), por otro lado, are indebted to and inspired by the revolutionary
vision of their founders: the ancestors, elders, and community members who believed that higher educa-
tion rooted in tribal sovereignty, identity, sistemas, and beliefs would ensure the survival and prosperity of
their people. TCUs are advancing Native student access and completion, developing scholars who are con-
tributing to knowledge creation through community-based research, and promoting economic and entre-
preneurial development in tribal communities.

The tribal college movement began with prayer and

ceremony, according to the late Gerald One Feather
(Oglala Lakota), a founder of the tribal college move-
mento. The founders considered the history of Amer-
ican Indian education, which was guided by the
problematic goal of assimilation and the rejection
of being Indian, and understood that their efforts
required strength and guidance from the Creator,
as perceived by each tribal nation. The founders of
the Tribal Colleges and Universities (tcus) move-
ment also understood that for Native people to sur-
vive and preserve what it means to be Indigenous,
they had to assert control over the very educational
systems and schools designed for assimilation. El
tribal college movement was, and still is, about Na-
tive people taking control of their own lives.

En este ensayo, we outline three important aspects
of the tcu movement. Primero, we offer a brief ori-
gin story of the concept of tcus. Segundo, we high-

cheryl crazy bull (Sicangu
Lakota) is President and ceo of
the American Indian College Fund.

justin guillory (Nez Perce
descendent) is President of North-
west Indian College.

(Complete author biographies appear
at the end of the essay.)

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light the importance of the ways in which
tcus bridge historical and contemporary
knowledge in a cultural context. We want
to be clear that tcus exist in a particular
place–on Native lands–and that is im-
portant to our story. Tercero, we contend
that tcus are rooted in a tribal mission
engaged with cultural preservation and
revitalization, which creates healthy so-
cieties and offers an outlet for contempo-
rary expressions of both the past and the
future. The acts of the founders of tcus,
and the current and future iterations of
these institutions, are rooted in the pow-
erful fact that tcus are self-determining
locations for tribal higher education; ellos
were created by Indigenous peoples and
are focused on the futures of Indigenous
peoples.

On March 2, 1911, August Breuninger, a

self-described mixed-blood Menominee
indio, wrote to Dr. Carlos Montezuma,
a well-known Apache physician:

A University for Indians is the greatest step
that we educated Indians could make in unit-
ing our people. . . . It would eliminate the gen-
eral conception of the people that an Indian
consists of only feathers and paint. It would
single us out to the Indians and the rest of the
world as really progressive Indians. It would
give us a better influence with the rising gen-
eration, by setting out our character in such
conspicuous a manner as to be the means of
being observed and imitated by them.1

Breuninger’s advice offers an early form
of educational decolonization by advocat-
ing tribal unity, resisting the harmful im-
pacts of stereotypes, striving for progress,
and creating role models for future gener-
ations.2 It is important to note, sin embargo,
that although Breuninger was bold in ad-
vocating for a “university for Indians,” the
proposal merely served as a precursor to an
even more radical ambition: a university
created by American Indians.

Other essays in this issue of Dædalus ad-
dress the history of Indigenous education
and schooling in detail. We add, sin embargo,
a few points that necessarily ground any
treatment of tcus. The specific history of
American Indians in higher education is
one of erasure. By the early 1960s, Ameri-
can Indian higher education was at its low-
est point. Most Indian people did not at-
tend college; of those who did, nine out of
every ten dropped out.3 In 1961, only sixty-
six American Indians graduated from four-
year institutions, which were predomi-
nately White.4

Among Native people, the 1960s’ pas-
sion for civil rights and social justice re-
form manifested itself in the creation of
the American Indian Movement, a nation-
al group that supported dramatic interven-
tions in education, salud, and justice. El
combination of the systematic failure of
Indian education, the harsh social, politi-
California, and economic conditions that charac-
terized the 1960s, and the desire of Indian
people to reclaim their cultural heritage and
undo the damaging effects of colonization
proved a tipping point for a revolution in In-
dian education.5 The result was the estab-
lishment in 1968 of the first tribally con-
trolled college in the United States: Navajo
Community College, now Diné College. Para
the first time in American history, a post-
secondary institution was created by Indi-
ans for Indians, representing hope and op-
portunity for the Indian people.6 The trib-
al college movement was born.

Hoy, thirty-six tcus are members of
the American Indian Higher Education
Consorcio (aihec) and serve more than
twenty thousand Native and non-Native
rural students, representing more than
250 tribal groups across the United States
and Canada. Although each tcu is unique,
they share characteristics that distinguish
them from nontribal institutions. Su
core mission and identity are to rebuild In-
digenous nations through the teaching of

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Dédalo, la Revista de la Academia Estadounidense de las Artes & SciencesRevolution in Higher Education

tribal histories, idiomas, and cultures.7
They accomplish this by emphasizing cul-
tural preservation and revitalization and
incorporating, when appropriate, Oeste-
ern models of learning offered through
mainstream disciplinary courses and de-
grees that are similar and transferable to
mainstream four-year or graduate insti-
tutions.8 tcus focus on bridging histor-
ical and contemporary knowledge within
a cultural context. Most tcus are located
on rural Indian reservations, began as two-
year institutions, are less than forty years
viejo, have relatively small student bodies
(often fewer than five hundred students)
that are predominantly American Indian,
were chartered by one or more tribes, y
have open admissions policies.

For our purposes, we reference the mem-
bership of the American Indian Higher Ed-
ucation Consortium, an organization estab-
lished in 1976 to strengthen the shared in-
terests of tcus. As of this writing, thirty of
the thirty-six members are tribally char-
tered institutions established by their gov-
erning tribe under the authority of the tribe
as a sovereign nation and as the provider of
education for their tribal citizens. The oth-
er six members include one federally char-
tered college, two colleges operated by the
A NOSOTROS. Department of Interior Bureau of Indi-
an Education, two tribal corporations, y
one tribal/state partnership. There are sev-
eral other postsecondary tribal institutions
in various stages of formation that are not
members of the aihec.

Tribal colleges provide both communi-
ty employment opportunities and serve
as educators of current and potential em-
ployees on reservations. In 2013–2014,
tcus employed nearly 3,400 full-time
and nearly 1,700 part-time faculty and
staff. Their institutions brought in more
than $485 million in revenue, con 48 por- cent of their total expenses in payroll. They also educated 22,797 college students, 87 percent of whom were American Indian. And tcus serve thousands of other com- munity members who take advantage of the community education opportunities they provide.9 Tcus represent an assertion of sover- eignty in the form of self-determination. While there are significant legal implica- tions in the definition of tribal sovereign- ty and citizenship, for tcus, sovereignty is manifested in the ways that they engage their communities in preserving and revi- talizing an identity that is unique to each tribe. Among the most important quali- ties of identity are tribal languages; each tribal language is the means of describing relationships and building understanding of values, origen, and place. Tribal colleges build national tribal identities in addition to state and U.S. citizenship. In that con- texto, we recognize that our “culture groups are defined by their distinctive features; language is one distinguishing feature that is important to cultural identity develop- ment and maintenance.”10 The common thread that unites all tcus, as evidenced by their mission statements, is a commitment to the revitalization and promotion of their people’s culture, lan- guage, and tradition to strengthen one’s tribal identity.11 The goal is not necessarily for Native students to “find themselves,” but rather to see and discover themselves throughout their tribal college experience. This experience is rooted in relationships between the students and each other, the students and the place of the tcu, and the students and language and culture. De este modo, on a cultural level, tcus are about relationships. tcu founders and leaders today believe that we are first and foremost human beings. American Indian tribes commonly call themselves The People, united by shared beliefs, customs, rela- tionships, and a sense of belonging. Our ancestors and elders remind us to be proud of our identities and origins, and that pride l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / directo . mi t . / e d u d a e d a r t i c e – pd / l f / / / / / 1 4 7 2 9 5 1 8 3 1 4 4 3 d a e d _ a _ 0 0 4 9 3 pd . f por invitado 0 8 septiembre 2 0 2 3 97 147 (2) Spring 2018Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory manifests itself in our educational work. The belief that we are a People is rarely taught in formal Western education. This is part of the ongoing struggle of trib- al colleges, but also part of the essential work: to be places where Native students can simply be. Students are educated in a place where they are known as tribal peo- por ejemplo. Eso es, for us, the essence of authen- tic community. Given their culture-based missions, the characteristics that distinguish tribal col- leges from other higher education institu- tions center on the ways Indigenous values and beliefs are reflected throughout the in- stitution, particularly within the curricu- lum, program offerings, course content and design, and the pedagogies used by the faculty who teach within this context. The place-based nature of tcus, combined with their goals of supporting tribal pros- perity and priorities, means that they are comprehensive in their academic and vo- cational offerings. An individual institu- tion might offer everything from a short- term truck driving certificate to a master’s degree in education. This level of respon- siveness to the needs of the community– to The People–is critical to the purpose of tcus to provide educational access where it does not otherwise exist. James Shanley, former president of Fort Peck Community College and a national leader in Indian education, observed the progress of tribes and tcus in Capturing Ed- ucation: “Saving a culture is a difficult task, but there are now more people who know (the tribe’s) historia, cultura, and language than thirty years ago.” Shanley goes on to describe how tcus inspire a deep “love of learning that is both empowering and liber- ating. . . . I’ve always equated education with freedom.”12 tcus are engaged in practices that weave together both freedom-making and nation-building. Cultural identity builds nationhood. Cultural identity also develops a path of individual achievement and leads to an im- proved quality of life for individuals and families. tcus developed culturally re- sponsive pedagogy in order to allow the “discovery of oneself . . . whether that is traditional, or whether that’s contempo- rary, or whether that is a combination of those things.”13 tcus recognize the diver- sity of their student population and their communities and respond to these needs by providing a range of supportive pro- gramos, services, and opportunities. Tribal colleges lead with the develop- ment of language immersion programs, with a primary focus on the restoration of conversational language for all tribal citi- zens. Language revitalization is viewed as a political act, and tcus often overcome significant local political disagreement to establish language immersion programs, working through tensions about which orthography to use, the use of communi- ty dialects, and the choice and qualifica- tions of language teachers. Despite these challenges, institutions have made tre- mendous strides. On the Standing Rock reservation, Por ejemplo, which straddles North and South Dakota, Sitting Bull Col- lege’s language program exemplifies com- munity-based instruction combined with a preservation focus and internal and ex- ternal partnerships, all focused on the same aim: the restoration of the Lakota language. Many know Standing Rock as the site of the resistance to the Dakota Ac- cess Pipeline, but it is also a site of cultur- al resurgence in Sitting Bull College’s lan- guage efforts. These kinds of resurgences are often the result of partnerships be- tween a tcu and middle and secondary schools. Aaniiih Nakoda College at Fort Belknap in Montana operates the White Clay Immersion School, which has grad- uated nearly fifty fluent or nearly fluent Aaniiih-speaking eighth graders. These ef- forts seek to ensure the future of the lan- guage and peoples of the region. 98 l D o w n o a d e desde h t t p : / / directo . mi t . / e d u d a e d a r t i c e – pd / l f / / / / / 1 4 7 2 9 5 1 8 3 1 4 4 3 d a e d _ a _ 0 0 4 9 3 pd . f por invitado 0 8 septiembre 2 0 2 3 Dédalo, la Revista de la Academia Estadounidense de las Artes & SciencesRevolution in Higher Education In a move that had far-reaching implica- ciones, tcus established themselves as local mediators of culture. They became insti- tutions in which tribal social norms, tradi- tional practices, and kinship are revitalized in ways that are representative of the func- tional societies of our tribal past. tcus be- lieve that the social burdens experienced by our communities can be ameliorated by cultural restoration, which includes reviv- ing kinship practices, using cultural values in decision-making, and employing cre- ation and teaching stories as guides to how to live in today’s society. Education reinforces the very commit- ment to culture and language necessary to a healthy society. The diligence exhibited by cultural practitioners is enhanced by a tcu-educated tribal citizenry committed to maintaining traditions and knowledge and revitalizing language. Our spiritual leaders and our people pray for and believe in ed- ucation and tcus strengthen this, en parte, through the work of their faculty. For Native students, trust-building is es- sential to the learning process, and effective tcu faculty members will demonstrate the patience, trustworthiness, flexibilidad, and enthusiasm necessary to provide a caring environment for students. Faculty also fos- ter relationships with Native students by asking about their family and their com- munity, attending community gatherings, and by listening to their stories, challeng- es, and aspirations. This process takes time, espacio, and a high level of cultural expertise and nuance. A veteran tcu faculty member might teach multiple generations of one family, enabling them to establish a connection and trust with the family, putting students at ease. tcu faculty are also embedded in the communities in which they live and work, and their community knowledge, cultural competency, and pedagogical skills are as essential as content knowledge for student success. This is one critical manifestation of tribally controlled education. Without strategies to gather culturally based knowledge, it would be difficult to achieve the academic and community im- pact that tcus strive for. Because tcu fac- ulty and staff are acutely aware of the loss of traditional knowledge as generations pass and interaction with a global popu- lation increases, tcus are distinctly multi- generational in their approach to education, incorporating the wisdom of elders, tradi- tional experts, heads of families, and cultur- al informants. These community members share their cultural and traditional knowl- borde, herramientas, and resources to inform to- day’s society. The unique features of tcus are also illustrated by faculty members’ in- clusion of diverse teaching methodologies and practices that skillfully weave the his- torical with the contemporary to achieve learning outcomes. In order to do so, tcu faculty must demonstrate high levels of cul- tural competency. Since their inception, tribal colleges have devoted increasing resources to de- velop and build the capacity of Native and non-Native faculty to teach at their institu- ciones. The American Indian College Fund, Por ejemplo, implemented a five-year ini- tiative called Woksape Oyate (Wisdom of the People) focused on strengthening the teaching, leadership, and scholarship ca- pabilities of faculty across the tcu system. Through ongoing faculty development ac- tivities and initiatives, faculty members are able to use culturally relevant teach- ing strategies that also reinforce tradition- al values such as generosity, commitment to community, compassion, and humility. Faculty often come to tcus with the de- sire to make a difference, and this is best accomplished when faculty become part of the people they serve.14 Indeed, many tribal colleges have adopted a philosophy of “grow your own” faculty: eso es, iden- tifying individuals with existing cultural l D o w n o a d e d f r o m h t t p : / / directo . mi t . / e d u d a e d a r t i c e – pd / l f / / / / / 1 4 7 2 9 5 1 8 3 1 4 4 3 d a e d _ a _ 0 0 4 9 3 pd . f por invitado 0 8 septiembre 2 0 2 3 99 147 (2) Spring 2018Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory capability and academic interest and pro- viding them with the support to obtain de- grees in order to become teachers and ad- ministrators, stabilizing and strengthen- ing the place-based nature of tcus. On a more philosophical level, the im- plicit idea within the mission statements of tcus is the recognition that Indigenous people are a people of place. “Indigenous people,” asserted Vine Deloria Jr., “repre- sent a culture emergent from a place, and they actively draw on the power of that place physically and spiritually.”15 This is vitally important because, in order for tcus to fulfill their missions, they must continue to strive to develop an academic framework, curriculum, and course design that appro- priately honor and reflect, to the extent pos- sible, the cultural teachings and practices that derive from their place, cual, Sucesivamente, foster a strong sense of identity and what it means to be both tribal and Indigenous. Recognition of place within mission of- ten requires the return to the origin or cre- ation story of each institution. Like Tribal Nations, tcus also have creation stories. This is a unique characteristic of tribal col- leges and distinguishes them from other higher education institutions founded for different public and private purposes. The origin story of each institution honors the original intention of the founders and re- inforces the manifestation of place reflect- ed in each institution’s academic and com- munity engagement. Retaining this indi- vidual institutional sense of purpose is critical to maintaining the vision and val- ues of the communal nature of the tribal college movement. In addition to supporting culturally ap- propriate, place-based curricula, tcus train teachers and community educators, and collect and serve as repositories of tribal knowledge and information. Many tcu libraries serve as the tribal public li- brary, and all house collections specific to their tribal communities. Many tcus have archives and museums in which both his- torical and contemporary memorabilia and documents are preserved. tcus do not just reinvigorate cultural and social prosperity in their communities, they also make significant economic contribu- tions to their communities and the states in which they are located. A study commis- sioned by aihec found that for every dollar invested in tcus in 2013–2014, the commu- nity saw a return of $5.20 in added income
and lifestyle improvement. Salud, crime,
and unemployment were all positively af-
fected by education, representing a signifi-
cant return on investment.16 But more stud-
ies are needed. The American Indian Col-
lege Fund’s return-on-investment literature
revisar, por ejemplo, identified limitations
on the data gathered on tcus’ impact.17
While most descriptions of impact are an-
ecdotal, this lack of data, usually explained
by researchers in terms of population size,
does not–and should not–diminish the in-
valuable ways that tcus contribute to tribal
prosperity and citizenship beyond language
restoration and economic impact.

From the beginning, tribal colleges were
rooted in community engagement. Many
tcus were founded on reservations where
unemployment can be as high as 80 por-
centavo. The importance of tcus to their
communities “transcends their relatively
small size.”18 tcus are not just communi-
ty centers; they are centers of the commu-
nity. The mission of tcus to build sover-
eign nations through excellence in tribal
higher education is reflected in all aspects
of tribal college life. Tribal college facili-
ties are used not only for educational and
training purposes, but also for ceremonies
and social events such as funerals, celebra-
ciones, and wellness activities. tcus often
provide the only fitness or health facilities
available to their communities.

En 1994, tcus were given land-grant sta-
tus through an act of the U.S. Congreso,

100

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Dédalo, la Revista de la Academia Estadounidense de las Artes & SciencesRevolution in Higher Education

making them part of a special group of
higher education institutions supported
by the Morrill Act, which also includes
state land-grant institutions (1862) y
Historically Black Colleges and Universi-
corbatas (1890). This status opened opportuni-
ties for additional research, program de-
velopment, and partnerships that promote
appropriate land use, water management,
and services to rural populations.

In many tribal communities, tcus pro-
vide citizens the opportunity to receive
their entire education within a tribally
controlled educational environment. En-
dividuals can go to a tribally sponsored
early learning center, attend a tribal pre-
kindergarten program, and participate in
a K–12 education, leading to a tcu. Este
education path replicates the tribal social-
ization of children and youth that is highly
valued by Indigenous people as the means
to survival and prosperity. There is an im-
portant cultural and philosophical point
to the fact that tcus are located in place;
it is also important to recognize that there
are practical and economic return-on-in-
vestment components to being an institu-
tion located in place. Asimismo, it is in place
where tcus translate and merge historical
and contemporary aspects of knowledge.

Tcus reflect traditional teachings. Tom

sansón (Tsartlip and Nez Perce Elder), a
frequent speaker on leadership and cultur-
al values, has said that traditional teachings
are about acknowledging that each person is
born with special gifts; leaders are respon-
sible for empowering and helping each per-
son discover and use their gifts to contrib-
ute to the community and their families.
He believes that this must occur in any ed-
ucational context and in the rest of society.
tcus strengthen identity through self-dis-
covery and self-expression.19

A strength of tribal colleges is their abil-
ity and capacity to offer exemplary Native
studies degree programs that not only pro-

vide the tools to effectively integrate tribal
knowledge into all aspects of learning, pero
also have unique access to elders, knowl-
edge-holders, and sacred sites in the com-
munity. As tribal education scholar Wayne
Stein has noted:

The Native studies department is that part of
the indigenous college that makes it a unique
institución. No other institution of higher
education can or will teach the local culture
and language with the love and accuracy that
the locally controlled indigenous college’s
native studies faculty will offer, over time.20

Ready access to Indigenous knowledge
and experiences allows faculty and stu-
dents to work together to construct deep-
ly enriching educational experiences. El
importance of access and its influence on
the tribal college experience is best artic-
ulated by Cheryl Crazy Bull:

One of the great things about being in a trib-
al college is that you get to see tribal schol-
ars every day. You get to see the native lan-
guage expert. You get to see the people who
know where the best fishing and hunting is
based on historical and cultural knowledge.
You get to see where people gathered at one
time and where they camped–all that infor-
formación, all that knowledge still exists in our
communities.21

Merging the historical with the contem-
porary happens frequently in the tribal col-
lege context. Several tcus and the aihec
participate with science programs, re-
buscar, and education through the National
Institute of Health’s Native American Re-
search Centers for Health, National Sci-
ence Foundation Experimental Program to
Stimulate Competitive Research, and oth-
er National Science Foundation programs
to engage health improvement, technolo-
gy amplification, and partnerships that im-
pact student and community health. Piedra
Child College on the Rocky Boy reservation
in Montana facilitates a community-wide

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101

147 (2) Spring 2018Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory

health education program aimed at devel-
oping community health educators. Sanguijuela
Lake Tribal College on the Leech Lake
reservation in Minnesota grounded their
health programming in traditional Anisha-
naabe values, recognizing sacred medicines
such as tobacco, while simultaneously ban-
ning commercial tobacco from its campus.
tcus are inextricably linked to the Civil
Rights Movement, American Indian Move-
mento, and to later social movements, semejante
as the Stand with Standing Rock environ-
mental and social justice movement. tcus
were established to provide the education
necessary to fulfill self-determination using
modern tools and traditional knowledge.
Tribally controlled education has evolved
into the dynamic and comprehensive edu-
cation necessary to combat numerous so-
cial problems faced by Natives and the rest
of society, including the challenges associ-
ated with poverty, environmental degrada-
ción, and lack of access to adequate infra-
estructura, health care, housing, and trans-
portation. Por ejemplo, many challenging
health concerns such as heart disease and
diabetes can be addressed through the use
of tribal plants and medicines, combined
with Native foods and fitness through Na-
tive games. Ceremonies and tribal med-
icines as well as language immersion can
be used to alleviate posttraumatic stress
disorders. Traditional child-rearing prac-
tices focused on the health and well-being
of children in the context of their age, generación-
der identity, and kinship promote healthier,
happier children.

Cultural knowledge, in this context, es
shared both inside and outside of the class-
room by tribal scholars and researchers, lo-
cal cultural teachers, Native language speak-
ers, community leaders, advocates, and el-
ders. Students and their extended families
are the beneficiaries of this cultural knowl-
borde, cual, Sucesivamente, helps foster a positive
self-identity development and future out-
look for students and Native communities.

Some proponents of tribally controlled
education want students to be able to ad-
dress issues from a tribal viewpoint rath-
er than only trying to advocate for tribal
views through a Western lens. Por ejemplo,
Sharon Kinley, dean of Coast Salish Stud-
ies at Northwest Indian College (nwic) en
the Lummi reservation in Washington, tiene
illustrated this distinction in her descrip-
tion of the purpose of new baccalaureate
degree programs. Kinley has stressed the
relationship of Lummi and other Coast Sal-
ish people to the sea. The sea is the place
from which her people emerged; it is the
place from which her people defined their
homelands. It represents their economy,
describes their social system, and serves as
the source of food and other resources. A
approach decision-making about the wa-
ter without understanding the relationship
of the people to the sea is to approach de-
cision-making from a nontribal perspec-
tivo. The goal of the Native studies lead-
ership and Native environmental science
degrees at nwic is to teach students to ap-
proach decision-making through self-de-
termination as tribal citizens.

tcus recognize that inherent connec-
tions between the past and present are the
strength of tribally based higher educa-
ción. tcus also recognize that education, en
lugar, allows students an opportunity to see
the context of learning as both an academ-
ic and a cultural enterprise. Students grow
through the opportunity to remain embed-
ded in their homelands and community and
to receive access to an institution of higher
education at the same time.

Tcu founders were focused on access to
higher education. As James Shanley has
observado, the early tcus modeled them-
selves after mainstream community col-
leges, which were designed to support lo-
cal control and visibility and to promote ac-
cess to education for all citizens, particularly
for veterans returning from World War II.22

102

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social challenges. Symbolic representa-
tions of this sense of purpose permeate
the environment of tcus, que van desde
course content to facility design. Mayoría
important, sin embargo, these representations
occur in the actions of students, staff, y
tcu leadership; they act as good relatives
to each other and to the rest of creation;
they keep the teachings of their ancestors
alive; and they focus on being a people as
defined by their own values and stories.

As revolutionaries, the founders of tribal
higher education institutions committed to
remaining unchanged as Indigenous, to re-
sisting assimilation, and to serve as the pil-
lars of modern tribal Indigenous societies.
Their vision of transformation and wellness
rooted in traditional educational practices,
spirituality, and relationship remains at the
heart of the tribal college movement.

The return on investment desired by
tcu founders is being fulfilled. They want-
ed tribal people to be educated beyond sur-
vival. The founders wanted their people to
prosper as Indigenous people. This pros-
perity rooted in tribal sovereignty, identity,
the development of tribally controlled ed-
ucation systems, and the use of our values
and beliefs to advance our goals is being
accomplished.

The similarities between tcus and main-
stream community colleges diverge sharp-
ly from there, sin embargo. Tribal colleges were
not created to be mainstream institutions
with Western educational missions. “Trib-
al colleges and universities,” according to
Cheryl Crazy Bull, “have emerged from
the sacred to do the necessary, present-day
work of our ancestors. They teach our lan-
calibres, socialize our children and support
their families, protect and manage our re-
sources and assets, and preserve our identi-
ties and our ways of living for future gener-
ations.”23 Access to education is more than
obtaining skills to earn a credential. Es
about access to tribal knowledge, commu-
nity, role identification, purpose, kinship,
familia, and relationships. Because of tcus,
Native students have access to a source of
strength and support in their own commu-
nity and the resources necessary to be suc-
cessful in college.

The vision of the tcu movement is ful-

filled through this continuous, focused
commitment to identity and place. El
revolution that the tribal colleges mani-
fest while rooted in the founders’ vision is
one that is dynamic in its responsiveness
to the evolution of tcus as higher educa-
tion institutions and as community-based
institutions. tcus demonstrate adaptabil-
ity and creativity in their development of
resources and programs as they respond to
changing community priorities and trib-
al needs. The desire for tribal citizens to
be educated in order to maintain cultural
integrity and to facilitate self-determina-
tion is still the focus of the tcu movement.
Prayers and ceremonies both informed
tcu visionaries and founders and served
as their source of strength and power.
Their sense of purpose–access to high-
er education and people restored to well-
ness and prosperity–motivates the found-
ing of tcus as well as their continued ex-
istence despite numerous financial and

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103

147 (2) Spring 2018Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory

author biographies

cheryl crazy bull (Sicangu Lakota) is President and ceo of the American Indian College
Fund. She previously served as President of Northwest Indian College and has extensive expe-
rience in tribal K–12 and higher education as well as community development. She has pub-
lished articles in such journals as Tribal College: Journal of American Indian Higher Education as well
as contributed to books focused on leadership, minority serving institutions, and tribal colleges.
justin guillory (Nez Perce descendent) is President of Northwest Indian College. He pre-
viously served as Dean of Extended Campuses and Dean of Academics and Distance Learn-
ing at Northwest Indian College. He has published essays in such collections as Understanding
Minority-Serving Institutions (2008).

notas finales
1 Steven Crum, “The Idea of an Indian College or University in Twentieth Century America be-
fore the Formation of the Navajo Community College in 1968,” Tribal College: Journal of Amer-
ican Indian Higher Education 1 (1) (1989): 20–23.

2 Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy, “Transformational Resistance and Social Justice: Americano
Indians in Ivy League Universities,” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 36 (3) (2005): 193–211;
and Linda Tuwahi Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Nueva York:
Zed Books, 1999).

3 Margaret Szasz, Education and the American Indian: The Road to Self-Determination since 1928 (Albu-

querque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974).

4 Ibídem.
5 Paul Boyer, Native American Colleges: Progress and Prospects (Princeton, NUEVA JERSEY.: Universidad de Princeton

Prensa, 1997).

6 Suzette Brewer, Real Indians: Portraits of Contemporary Native Americans and America’s Tribal Colleges

(Nueva York: Melcher Media, Cª, 2003).

7 Cheryl Crazy Bull, “Tribal Colleges and Universities: From Where We Are to Where We Might
Go,” in Tradition and Culture in the Millennium: Tribal Colleges and Universities, ed. Linda S. Warner
and Gerald E. Gipp (charlotte, N.C.: Information Age Publishing, 2009), 209–217.

8 American Indian Higher Education Consortium and The Institute for Higher Education Policy,
Tribal Colleges: An Introduction (Washington, CORRIENTE CONTINUA.: American Indian Higher Education Consor-
tium and The Institute for Higher Education Policy, 1999); and Wayne J. piedra, “Tribal Col-
leges and Universities: Supporting the Revitalization in Indian Country,” in Warner and Gipp,
editores., Tradition and Culture in the Millennium: Tribal Colleges and Universities, 17–34.

9 Economic Modeling Specialists International, The Economic Value of American Indian and Alaska Na-
tive Tribal Colleges and Universities: An Analysis of the Economic Impact and Return on Investment of Edu-
catión (Moscow, Idaho: Economic Modeling Specialists International, 2015), 11–12.

10 Mara Krilanovich, “Bilingual Education: Why Culture Matters,” unpublished paper (2005), 6,

http://www.mjkrilanovich.com/files/BiliEd.pdf.

11 Crazy Bull, “Tribal Colleges and Universities,” 209–217; Wayne Stein, “Developmental Action
for Implementing an Indigenous College: Philosophical Foundations and Pragmatic Steps,” in
The Renaissance of American Indian Higher Education: Capturing the Dream, ed. Maenette K. PAG. Hombres-
ham and Wayne J. piedra (Mahway, NUEVA JERSEY.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), 25–60.

12 James Shanley quoted in Paul Boyer, Capturing Education: Envisioning and Building the First Tribal

Colleges (Pablo, Mont.: Salish Kootenai College Press, 2015), 104–105.

13 Ibídem., 105.
14 Richard Voorhees, “Characteristics of Tribal College and University Faculty” (Denver, Colo.:

American Indian College Fund, 2003), 4.

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Dédalo, la Revista de la Academia Estadounidense de las Artes & SciencesRevolution in Higher Education

15 Vine Deloria Jr. and Daniel R. Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America (Golden,

Colo.: Fulcrum Resources, 2001), 32.

16 Economic Modeling Specialists International, The Economic Value of American Indian and Alaska

Native Tribal Colleges and Universities, 6.

17 Matthew Goldwasser, “Return on Investment for Tribal Colleges and Universities: A Synthe-
sis of the Literature and an Exploration on its Institutional Value to Tribal Colleges and Uni-
versities” (Denver, Colo.: American Indian College Fund, 2016).

18 American Indian Higher Education Consortium and The Institute for Higher Education Policy,
Building Strong Communities: Tribal Colleges as Engaged Institutions (Washington, CORRIENTE CONTINUA.: American In-
dian Higher Education Consortium and The Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2001), 51.

19 Authors’ conversations with Tom Sampson.
20 piedra, “Tribal Colleges and Universities," 48.
21 Cheryl Crazy Bull, keynote presentation, Stewarding Sacred Lands Conference, Native Amer-

ican Land Conservancy, 2007.

22 James Shanley, “Limitations and Alternatives to Developing a Tribally Controlled College,” in The
Renaissance of American Indian Higher Education: Capturing the Dream, ed. Maenette K. PAG. Menham and
Wayne J. piedra (Mahway, NUEVA JERSEY.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2003), 61–74.

23 Cheryl Crazy Bull, “Journey to Freedom: Reflecting on our Responsibilities, Renewing our

Promises,” Tribal College: Journal of American Higher Indian Education 24 (2) (2012).

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105

147 (2) Spring 2018Cheryl Crazy Bull & Justin Guillory
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