PRACTICE—LESSONS LEARNED
Learning From Disaster: What Two Hurricanes
Reveal About Ways to Design Public Space as
Flood Infrastructure
Anya Domlesky
SWA Group
un acceso abierto
diario
Palabras clave: flood-adaptive infrastructure, urban resilience challenges, multipurpose design, verde
infrastructure, coastal parks, riverfront parks
ABSTRACTO
This article examines the resilience of two urban parks in the United States after extreme
flooding caused by separate hurricane events. It provides early lessons for designers, planners,
and engineers of open and park space from a practice-based research group and two
academic partnerships. The first site is coastal, a waterfront park in New York City, Nueva York.
The focus was on understanding how elements of the design and construction of Hunter’s
Point South Waterfront Park, Phase 1, contributed to a high level of resilience during and after
Hurricane Sandy, especially related to coastal flooding, storm surge, and heavy rains. El
second site is on the principal river system in Houston, Texas. The focus was on understanding
how elements of the design and construction of a 160-acre section of Buffalo Bayou Park
contributed to a high level of resilience during and after Hurricane Harvey, which brought
heavy rains, increased water velocity, and extended submergence.
INTRODUCCIÓN
Over the past 10 años, there has been increasing support for implementing double-duty infra-
structure projects that promise to combine flood-adaptive green infrastructure with con-
ventional grey infrastructure in addition to providing public space. En los Estados Unidos, a
combination of government budget shortfalls affecting public space, infrastructure spending,
and climate change risk awareness has contributed to the increasing promotion and construc-
tion of these projects in urban areas. There seems to be growing sentiment among project ini-
tiators (municipalities, federal agencies like the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [USACE], y
economic development agencies) that building out flood buffers as parks or parks that can
serve as floodable space is advantageous. Leading up to this moment, there have been persua-
sive arguments made variously by those in the natural sciences (environmental scientists, ecol-
ogists, and biologists), the social sciences (economists, political scientists, sociologists, y
geographers), and professional disciplines (lawyers, engineers, urban planners and designers,
architects, and landscape architects) in favor of a double-duty approach. Within these groups,
there are arguments for cost savings (Reynaud et al., 2017), the use of scarce land (Le et al.,
2019), parks as environmentally high-performing spaces rather than simply recreational ame-
niidades (Matos Silva & Costa, 2016; silva & Costa, 2018), the use of existing assets as climate
change infrastructure (Syahirani & Ellisa, 2021), the diversification of disaster management
estrategias (sometimes to include natural and nature-based features [NNBFs]; Feagin et al.,
Citación: Domlesky, A. (2023). Aprendiendo
From Disaster: What Two Hurricanes
Reveal About Ways to Design Public
Space as Flood Infrastructure. Diario
of Climate Resilience & Clima
Justicia, 1, 66–77. https://doi.org/10
.1162/crcj_a_00003
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1162/crcj_a_00003
Autor correspondiente:
Anya Domlesky
adomlesky@swagroup.com
Derechos de autor: © 2023
Instituto de Tecnología de Massachusetts.
Publicado bajo Creative Commons
Atribución 4.0 Internacional
(CC POR 4.0) licencia.
La prensa del MIT
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Learning From Disaster
2021; Hegger et al., 2016), and the utility of educating visitors about flood mitigation (Kuang &
Liao, 2020).
For centuries, parks in urban areas in the United States have been built on land that was
either marginally useful for human exploitation of resources (through activities like farming
and logging) or very challenging to develop (for inhabitation, commerce, or real estate) pendiente
mainly to slope, soil quality, or flooding. The site of what would become Central Park in New
York City, Por ejemplo, was full of bedrock outcrops, alguno 140 feet high, and partially settled
by property-owning African Americans before it was taken by eminent domain in 1857.
Golden Gate Park in San Francisco was principally a giant sand dune prior to design. Forest
Park in Portland, Oregón, was created in the wake of the logging of the steep site that triggered
landslides. Many existing parks are already located in river floodplains or coastal margins.
Fairmount Park in Philadelphia and Mill River Park in Stamford, Connecticut, are riverine
examples. Passeio Atlântico in Porto, Portugal, and Stanley Park in Vancouver, British Colum-
bia, are coastal examples.
In parallel, there are also parks constructed in previously natural areas well known to flood
eso, due to development pressures and the intensification of land use in city centers, son
developed anyway (examples include Yanweizhou Park, Jinhua City, People’s Republic of
Porcelana, and Parque La Marjal, Alicante, España). These parks, sometimes called floodable parks,
manage water and water excesses in lieu of a natural system, pero (la lógica va) con el
addition of a public amenity (Loggia et al., 2020). The two sites studied in this analysis are
both parks constructed relatively recently on land previously used for industrial purposes or
transportation infrastructure. Corktown Common in Toronto and the East Side Coastal Resil-
iency Project in New York City are other postindustrial examples designed for flooding. En
commercial real estate terms, these are brownfield sites. This is an important distinction amid
the tendency to valorize any double-duty park. Developing natural infrastructure or greenfield
areas like wetlands—mangrove forests, marshes, and saltmarshes—removes naturally occur-
ring, biodiverse, self-regulating ecosystems that could be part of a valuable natural protection
sistema. When developing flood protection and park land, one must consider prior land use
first and foremost.
Many have discussed the policy advantages of double-duty parks or multifunctional infra-
estructura; sin embargo, the purpose of this study is to determine how to design for both park needs
and flood mitigation related to extreme weather in the same space. It is simply not sufficient
to commit land to open space use and expect it to function as a flood buffer and, conversely, a
design flood infrastructure and expect it to function well as a park. It is also not sufficient to
design for baseline or normal weather conditions; bastante, sites need to be designed for extreme
duress according to the risk factors affecting each region and site. Es decir, técnica,
craft, diseño, siting, and planning for both desired functions are critical to success.
TWO NATURAL EXPERIMENTS
After Hurricane Sandy in the Northeast in 2012 and Hurricane Harvey in the South in 2017,
the promise of double-duty parks’ functional and social coupling was tested. Sites in both the
Hudson-Raritan Estuary (Cifra 1) and the Galveston Bay Estuary (Cifra 2) were severely
affected by rainfall, stormwater, storm surge, and coastal flooding. In a future where these
events are likely to become more common and/or more extreme, landscape architects and
urban designers at one private landscape and planning firm, SWA Group, wanted to find
out what worked and what did not in terms of design and planning in these public realm
spaces.
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Learning From Disaster
Cifra 1. SWA Group/Jonnu Singleton.
Against a backdrop of 3 years of post-occupancy analysis on 29 of the firm’s built projects,
a dedicated practice-based research group within the firm, XL Lab, set out to gather metrics
about coastal flooding and stormwater resilience at the site level. The hypothesis was that the
two public realm spaces were functioning successfully as parks (with their attendant social,
salud, and alternative transportation benefits) but also as successful flood infrastructure, incluso
mitigating and managing flooding in extreme events. Anecdotal evidence each design team
had collected from contractors, clientela, and partners indicated key successes and a few areas
for improvement.
Two case studies ensued: one study done in 2018 with the Landscape Architecture Foun-
dación (LAF) and Penn State University researchers on a coastal site—phase one of Hunter’s
Cifra 2. SWA Group/ William Tatham.
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Learning From Disaster
Point South Waterfront Park in New York City (LAF, 2018)—and another study done in 2019
on a riverine site with LAF and University of Texas (UT) at Arlington researchers at Buffalo
Bayou Park in Houston, Texas (LAF, 2019). The second case study follows up on a previously
completed study of the site that serves as a baseline (LAF, 2013). For both studies, social per-
rendimiento, recreational and health outcomes, and economic and environmental performance,
including flood protection, were studied. The brief discussion here will focus more narrowly
on each site’s performance as flood infrastructure in extreme conditions using findings from
the two studies and from XL Lab data.
MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS
Both sites were evaluated on their capacity for resilience as introduced by Canadian ecologist
C. S. Holling, who emphasized designing for “ecological resilience,” defined as “the amount
of disturbance that can be sustained before a change in system, control and structure occurs”
(Holling, 1996, pag. 33). The design recommendations below are categorized on the properties
of resilience more recently defined by Bruneau et al. (2003, páginas. 737–738) for seismic events:
robustez, rapidity, redundancy, and resourcefulness.
(cid:129)
(cid:129)
(cid:129)
(cid:129)
Robustez: strength, or the ability of elements, sistemas, and other units of analysis to
withstand a given level of stress or demand without suffering degradation or loss of
función.
Redundancy: the extent to which elements, sistemas, or other units of analysis exist
that are substitutable, es decir., capable of satisfying functional requirements in the event
of disruption, degradation, or loss of functionality.
Resourcefulness: the capacity to identify problems, establish priorities, and mobilize
resources when conditions exist that threaten to disrupt some element, sistema, o
other unit of analysis; resourcefulness can be further conceptualized as consisting
of the ability to apply material (es decir., monetary, físico, technological, and informa-
tional) and human resources to meet established priorities and achieve goals.
Rapidity: the capacity to meet priorities and achieve goals in a timely manner in order
to contain losses and avoid future disruption.
Throughout the analysis, the team was also attentive to larger systems-level capacities for
resilience: capacity to resist, capacity to absorb and recover, and capacity to transform and
adapt (Hegger et al., 2016).
Methods of investigation included mapping, interviews, site photographs, video, construc-
tion document takeoffs, and hydrologic modeling for the first site. For more on the academic
team’s methods, see the case study methods document (DuRussel & singh, 2018). For the sec-
ond site, methods of investigation included mapping, análisis de los datos (aerial images, high-water
elevations, and geospatial data sets), interviews, time-series site photographs, an onsite survey
of visitors, and construction document takeoffs. For more on that academic team’s methods,
see the case study methods document (Aman & Yildirim, 2019).
Hurricane 1, Coastal Site
The first site, Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park, Phase 1, is in a coastal location in the
borough of Queens in New York City. In the late 19th century, the area saw heavy industrial
use with crisscrossing rail tracks terminating at a tidal strait in New York Harbor, the East River.
Más tarde, in the 1970s and after, it was a private tennis club on a hardened bulkhead that turned its
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Learning From Disaster
back on the waterfront. En 2009, a team led by engineers at the global firm Arup presented
design concepts for the first phase of a park. In addition to implementing the client’s design
principios, landscape architects Thomas Balsley Associates, now SWA/Balsley, junto con
architects Weiss Manfredi, designed a park intended to “bend and not break” (Dunlap,
2013) in the case of extreme weather. En 2012, as the park was partway through active con-
estructura, the design was tested when Hurricane Sandy made landfall on October 29 as a Cat-
egoría 1 hurricane (Cifra 3). Six years later, the case study was intended to answer some basic
questions about the event: 1) how the design performed as flood infrastructure during and after
this event, y 2) what designers could learn about designing for extreme events in coastal
settings for use in other projects.
Starting with the first question led to the understanding that the flooding extents encom-
passed almost the whole park. Looking at historical maps dating prior to industrial develop-
ment showed the team that the extents of flooding overlapped almost exactly with historical
marshland. The floodwaters reached about 4 pies (1.2 meters) high on the construction site
(Cifra 4). In terms of how the park performed, the team focused on the stormwater manage-
ment features, water storage capacity, speed of recovery, and the impact to features. El estudio
found that the amount of rainfall that accumulated as runoff was less than one-third of the
total. Some of this water was absorbed by features like the rock-filled gabions sunk into a filter
strip along the western edge of the park in order to intercept, absorb, and slow drainage to the
sewer system. In terms of water storage capacity to slow drainage, the study found that the
central oval lawn provided over 550,000 gallons of temporary water storage. For comparison,
that equates to detaining 85% of the water contained in an Olympic-sized swimming pool.
The speed of recovery on site was fast; in under five days, all water was drained from the site.
The impact to already constructed features was found to be minimal. The pavilion canopy,
decking, paving, bulkhead, and riprap withstood the storm with no significant damage
(Figures 5, 6).
Cifra 3.
John Virgolino.
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Learning From Disaster
Cifra 4. Weiss Manfredi.
XL Lab was able to understand many things about the hurricane event 6 years prior but was
unable to obtain detailed site information, notably the force with which floodwaters entered
the site and the wind speed on site during the event. The team was also unable to obtain any
documentation of the storm’s damage to soil and trees. There are still many challenges in
obtaining site-level or even neighborhood-level data during and directly after hurricane events
on metrics like local water flow speed, wind speed, water height, and drainage speed.
Hurricane 2, Riverine Site
The second study site, on a riverine SWA-designed park near Houston, Texas, es un 2.3 mile
(3.7 kilometer) linear park along an urban river that is designed to be floodable. Buffalo
Cifra 5. Weiss Manfredi.
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Learning From Disaster
Cifra 6. Weiss Manfredi.
Bayou Park lies just west of downtown Houston, on either side of Buffalo Bayou and
between two busy arterials, Memorial Drive and Allen Parkway. The park is made up of
several sections designed at different times starting in 2015 and continuing up until the cur-
rent moment with the in-progress East Section (Olson & Theis, 2017). Funded through a
public–private partnership model, the project kicked off with a generous private foundation
gift, with Harris County Flood Control District (a state partner of the USACE) also contribut-
En g, and Buffalo Bayou Partnership, who manages the park, raising the remaining funds
through a capital campaign. Illustrating the community’s broad support for the project, más
than 850 local foundations, corporate donors, and individual donors contributed to making
the park a reality. Históricamente, the river, although in downtown Houston, was effectively
ignored until Terry Hershey, a local activist, drew attention to Houston’s bayous in the
1960s. Now the river at the center of the park is an attraction, as well as accessible; approx-
imately 44,000 households can access the park within a 10-minute walk and approximately
half a million people within a 30-minute bike ride.
Buffalo Bayou Park has undergone many flood events, but it had its major test when Hur-
ricane Harvey made landfall on August 25, 2017, as a Category 4 hurricane (Cifra 7). (Para
reference, Hurricane Katrina was a Category 3 hurricane at landfall in New Orleans in 2005).
Major flooding occurred after two large reservoirs upstream were released on August 28.
When researchers conducted their case study in 2019, they obtained aerial images and other
data that allowed a better sense of basic information, like the extents of the flooding over time
(Figures 7, 8), than was available during the study of the Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park.
A record 39 pies (almost 12 meters) of flood elevation was recorded at Shepherd Drive Bridge
in Houston.
To measure park performance during the hurricane event, XL Lab was interested in iden-
tifying what withstood damage and what failed, how much floodable development saved in
costs over nonfloodable development, and speed of recovery. Unlike the coastal study in
Nueva York, it was inherently difficult to measure success in one section of the channel or
park because upstream flooding and channel design affected everything downstream. El
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Learning From Disaster
Cifra 7. Geoffrey Lyon.
features that withstood flooding and high water speeds were custom stair handrails, guard-
rails, and light poles that were designed with higher strength material and thicknesses
(Figures 9, 10). The UT Arlington team found that these high-strength features led to an
avoidance of an estimated US$2 million in damages (Aman & Yildirim, 2019). A number of the less expensive 2:1 vegetated slopes failed, but the more expensive coir lifts had no Figure 8. SWA Group/Jonnu Singleton. Journal of Climate Resilience and Climate Justice 73 Descargado de http://direct.mit.edu/crcj/article-pdf/doi/10.1162/crcj_a_00003/2157255/crcj_a_00003.pdf by guest on 07 Septiembre 2023 Learning From Disaster Figure 9. SWA Group/Jonnu Singleton. slope failures and avoided an estimated US$730,000 in repair costs, according to the UT
Arlington team’s findings. With repair costs, the price of the two bank stabilization tech-
niques was almost equal after one flood event. Another savings related to the floodable park
design was the reduction in lawn area and turf maintenance hours, which saves an esti-
mated US$52,000 annually. Por último, the speed of recovery and the speed of drainage were
determined by aerial photos at 1 week, 2 semanas, y 3 months after the hurricane made
landfall. Once the floodwaters receded, people quickly returned to using the park, pero el
80 million pounds (36 million kilos) of deposited silt took weeks to remove (Cifra 11). Este
Cifra 10. SWA Group/Jonnu Singleton.
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Learning From Disaster
Cifra 11. SWA Group/Maribel Amador.
was a relatively speedy cleanup due to an existing dedicated fund for maintenance. Cómo-
alguna vez, the weeks spent underwater, and/or under silt, deprived many of the park’s trees of
oxygen. In total, 400 trees died and had to be replaced.
RESULTADOS
Although Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park has yet to be tested in its fully constructed
forma, data on storm impact and recovery at the substantially built site offered insight into the
design decisions that contributed to the park’s resilience post-hurricane. At Buffalo Bayou
Parque, both the team’s data analysis and the UT Arlington team’s work highlighted design
decisions that contributed to its resilience post-hurricane, though future storm outcomes
may change in this section of the river as upstream sections are altered by future
desarrollo.
In the following list of takeaways, these design guidelines are generalized to apply to a wide
variety of riverine and coastal sites. There are many ways to achieve these ends and fit them to the
specificity of each site, regional hazards, weather patterns, and frequency or volume of users.
Takeaways for use on other coastal projects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Robustez: Raise a large portion of the site higher than the 100- or 200-year flood
nivel.
Robustez: Use materials that bend but do not break, or where possible, employ
over-engineered or overbuilt elements.
Rapidity: Exit most of the surface water, which is unpolluted, to the river, not the
storm sewer system.
Rapidity: Make a moderately easy entry for water to the site, and there will be less
damage to site elements.
Rapidity: A quick recovery decreases costs.
Redundancy: More softscape area slows and absorbs more water, as well as slowing
drainage to the sewer. Make other temporary storage areas for water to drain to.
Resourcefulness: Everything gets wet and salty. Make plantings salt tolerant and low
soil-oxygen tolerant.
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Learning From Disaster
Takeaways for use on other river projects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Robustez: Heftier light poles, railings, trash cans, and furnishings anchored below
ground withstood impacts. Deep pilings for bridges were necessary for soft soil.
Robustez: High clearance bridges stayed above flood levels. Low clearance brid-
ges became strainers and caught debris, which created extra pressure.
Robustez: Low-lying areas and former oxbows took the biggest hits, were difficult
to maintain, and needed to be the most durable.
Rapidity: Sloped surfaces of walks and walls and the rounded corners of elements
caught less debris and therefore created less drag underwater.
Redundancy: Flood benches designed to act as speed humps where fast moving
floodwater can spread out and drop silt and debris worked. Sin embargo, slowing water
meant a lot of silt deposition.
Redundancy: Redundancy in design features was important. Por ejemplo, superior
paths could be used quickly, while lower ones were cleared later.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Hoy, landscape architects aim to build double-duty projects that perform well as the social
and recreational spaces we know as parks and as sustainable infrastructure that not only with-
stands and is resilient after extreme pressures like flooding, high winds, and salt inundation,
but contributes positively to larger urban social and environmental systems and anticipates
climate change–influenced shocks and increased risks. Por último, these two studies reveal
that public spaces can be successfully designed as flood infrastructure if careful design and
management tactics are employed.
The social and functional coupling inherent to double-duty parks also serves a valuable
educational purpose for the visiting public. At Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park, el
familiar park landmarks along the waterfront functioned as high-water gauges for those living
in the series of high-rise towers that overlook the park. Residents could tell that this was a
significant event from their personal experience. At Buffalo Bayou, the longer cleanup time
for the silt deposition, combined with early park usage after the storm, served as potent evi-
dence and a reminder of the impact, fuerza, and cost of these extreme weather events
(Yildrim et al., 2021). Not only are these parks performing functions previously handled
solely by civil engineers, they also introduce a way for communities to see, interact with,
interpret, and understand the possible effects of climate change firsthand. This may be the
greatest benefit of implementing hybrid infrastructure-park projects, because resilience
relies, al final, on social and political will that prioritizes and funds well-constructed,
well-designed spaces.
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